King Caradog ap Bran of Wales, Vaughan

• Preferred Name: King Caradog ap Bran of Wales, Vaughan^{[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41]}
  
• Alternate Name: - King of the Catuvellauni Cardoc Caratacus ap Bran
  
• Alternate Name: Caradog Caratacus
  
• Gender: M
  
• Burial: in Powys, Wales at LATI: N2.3336 LONG: E3.3823
  
• FSID: 9HPR-C8T
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: King of Wales
  
• Christening: 56 in by St. Paul the Apostle, Rome, Italy at LATI: N1.903 LONG: E2.4963
  
• Birth: 6 NOV 35 in Trevan, Llanilid, Glamorganshire, Wales at LATI: N1.5659 LONG: E3.4344 with note: Trevan, Llanilid, Glamorganshire, England
  
• Nickname:
  
• Death: 100 in Siluria (Monmouthshire), Wales, Briton at LATI: N1.8133 LONG: E2.7141
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: Koning van Glamorgan
  
• MilitaryService: defeated by the Romans and taken to Rome as a prisoner.51
  
• Tribe Of: with note: Description: Joseph, Judah, (Zerah) Ancient Troy Greece
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: King of the Catuvellauni1st century AD to about 50 with note: Wikiwand: Caratacus
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: King of the BritonsBET 43 AND 50 with note: Wikiwand: Caratacus
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: King of Siluria
  
• Notes:

  === https://fabpedigree.com/s096/f801285.htm ===
  https://fabpedigree.com/s096/f801285.htm
  
  === https://www.geni.com/people/Caradoc-de-La-Boussac/6000000003949905327 ===
  https://books.google.com.au/books?id=mcG4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=Caradoc+de+La+Boussac,&source=bl&ots=_WZAqRcE75&sig=Cwb-0xU48D8IGw2NDsl4-GRC6Ik&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjNsYDI97XbAhWDWLwKHX7FAtM4ChDoAQhUMAs#v=onepage&q=Caradoc%20de%20La%20Boussac%2C&f=false
  
  === Personality ===
  Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners.[2]
  
  === 1 _UID F64E6B7E9103D611828100606E3BD45C ===
  1 _UID F64E6B7E9103D611828100606E3BD45CE4F8
  
  === Koning van Glamorgan ===
  Glamorgan or Glamorganshire (Welsh: Morgannwg) is one of thirteen historic counties and former administrative counties of Wales. It was previously a medieval kingdom or principality. Glamorgan contains the two largest Welsh cities ? Cardiff, the capital, and Swansea.
  
  Glamorgan is latterly represented by the three preserved counties of West Glamorgan (containing Swansea), Mid Glamorgan, and South Glamorgan (containing Cardiff).
  
  Initially it was founded as an independent petty kingdom named Morgannwg after a founding king called Morgan. It was at times united with the neighbouring kingdoms of Gwent and Ergyng. By virtue of its location and geography, Morgannwg was the second part of Wales, after Gwent, to be overrun by the Normans and was frequently the scene of fighting between the Marcher Lords and Welsh princes.

• m. 22

1. Marius Emeurig Cyllin "Cyllinus" ap Caradog or Caractacus of the Britons LAST PENDRAGON OF GREAT BRITAIN, b. ABT 45 in Siluria, England     d. 125 in Colchester, Essex, England

1. Coel Cyllin Ap Caradoc, b. ABT 85 in Trevan, Llanilid, Glamorganshire, Wales     d. 129 in Trevan, Llanilid, Glamorganshire, Wales
2. Ystradwl ferch Caradoc ap Bran, b. um 0065    

1. Title: Iolo Morganwg (1801). The triads of Britain. Wildwood House. ISBN 978-0-7045-0290-1. Retrieved 8 August 2012
   Author: Iolo Morganwg (1801). The triads of Britain. Wildwood House. ISBN 978-0-7045-0290-1. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
   Publication: Name: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyllin#References;
   Note: Cyllin was a legendary, and possibly historical British king of the 1st century AD, early Christian saint and the last pendragon of Great Britain. His existence is based on very limited evidence.[1] Richard Williams Morgan claimed that a reference to him as a son of Caratacus was found in the family records of Iestyn ab Gwrgant and used this as evidence of early entry of Christianity to Britain; Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners.[2] Reference to Cyllin is also given in Iolo Morganwg's "Third series" of forged Welsh Triads.[3] He is also discussed in the works of Rice Rees, Jane Williams, Sabine Baring-Gould and John Williams (Ab Ithel) as brother of Saint Eigen and father of King Coel.[4][5][6][7] He is also noted in a manuscript giving the genealogy of Taliesin from the collection of Thomas Hopkin of Coychurch along with one from the Havod Uchtryd collection where he is called Cynan, a name often associated with Conan Meriadoc.[8]
   Page: family relationship
   
2. Title: Wikiwand: Ancient Rome
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Ancient_Rome;
   Note: In historiography, ancient Rome is Roman civilization from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, encompassing the Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC), Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) and Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD) until the fall of the western empire. The civilization began as an Italic settlement in the Italian Peninsula, traditionally dated to 753 BC, that grew into the city of Rome and which subsequently gave its name to the empire over which it ruled and to the widespread civilization the empire developed. The Roman Empire expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world, still ruled from the city, with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants (roughly 20% of the world's population at the time) covering 5.0 million square kilometers at its height in AD 117. In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a elective monarchy to a democratic classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic semi-elective military dictatorship during the Empire. Through conquest, cultural, and linguistic assimilation, at its height it controlled the North African coast, Egypt, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the Balkans, Crimea and much of the Middle East, including Anatolia, Levant and parts of Mesopotamia and Arabia. It is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilization has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture and engineering. Rome professionalized and expanded its military and created a system of government called "res publica," the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as the construction of large monuments, palaces, and public facilities. The Punic Wars with Carthage were decisive in establishing Rome as a world power. In this series of wars, Rome gained control of the strategic islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily; took Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal); and destroyed the city of Carthage in 146 BC, giving Rome supremacy in the Mediterranean. By the end of the Republic (27 BC), Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond: its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa. The Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus. Seven-hundred and twenty-one years of Roman–Persian Wars started in 92 BC with the first struggle against Parthia. It would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak. It stretched from the entire Mediterranean Basin to the beaches of the North Sea in the north, to the shores of the Red and Caspian Seas in the East. Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor.[7][8][9] Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would temporarily divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century before some stability was restored in the Dominate phase of imperial rule. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire broke up into independent "barbarian" kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of universal history from the pre-medieval "Dark Ages" of Europe. The eastern part of the empire endured through the 5th century and remained a power through the middle ages until its fall in 1453 AD. Although the citizens of the empire made no distinction, the empire is most commonly referred to as the "Byzantine Empire" by modern historians to differentiate between the state in antiquity and the state during the Middle Ages. Founding myth Main article: Founding of Rome According to the founding myth of Rome, the city was founded on 21 April 753 BC on the banks of the river Tiber in central Italy, by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas, and who were grandsons of the Latin King Numitor of Alba Longa. King Numitor was deposed by his brother, Amulius, while Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silvia, gave birth to the twins. Since Rhea Silvia had been raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so he ordered them to be drowned. A she-wolf (or a shepherd's wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over the location of the Roman Kingdom, though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to rule or give his name to the city. Romulus became the source of the city's name. In order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem, in that Rome came to have a large male population but was bereft of women. Romulus visited neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables he was refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins with the Sabines. Another legend, recorded by Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy, since the original was destroyed at the end of the Trojan War. After a long time in rough seas, they landed on the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, but the women who were traveling with them did not want to leave. One woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent their leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they soon realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships. The Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the "Aeneid," where the Trojan prince Aeneas is destined by the gods to found a new Troy. In the epic, the women also refuse to go back to the sea, but they were not left on the Tiber. After reaching Italy, Aeneas, who wanted to marry Lavinia, was forced to wage war with her former suitor, Turnus. According to the poem, the Alban kings were descended from Aeneas, and thus Romulus, the founder of Rome, was his descendant. Kingdom Main article: Roman Kingdom The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river Tiber, a crossroads of traffic and trade. According to archaeological evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded some time in the 8th century BC, though it may go back as far as the 10th century BC, by members of the Latin tribe of Italy, on the top of the Palatine Hill. The Etruscans, who had previously settled to the north in Etruria, seem to have established political control in the region by the late 7th century BC, forming an aristocratic and monarchical elite. The Etruscans apparently lost power by the late 6th century BC, and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a republic, with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.[20] Roman tradition and archaeological evidence point to a complex within the Forum Romanum as the seat of power for the king and the beginnings of the religious center there as well. Numa Pompilius the second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus, began Rome's building projects with his royal palace the Regia and the complex of the Vestal virgins. Republic Main article: Roman Republic According to tradition and later writers such as Livy, the Roman Republic was established around 509 BC, when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed by Lucius Junius Brutus and a system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised executive authority such as imperium, or military command. The consuls had to work with the senate, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or patricians, but grew in size and power. Other magistrates of the Republic include tribunes, quaestors, aediles, praetors and censors. The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians, but were later opened to common people, or plebeians. Republican voting assemblies included the "comitia centuriata" (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the "comitia tributa" (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices. In the 4th century BC, Rome had come under attack by the Gauls, who now extended their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the Po Valley and through Etruria. On 16 July 390 BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain Brennus, met the Romans on the banks of the Allia River ten miles north of Rome. Brennus defeated the Romans, and the Gauls marched to Rome. Most Romans had fled the city, but some barricaded themselves upon the Capitoline Hill for a last stand. The Gauls looted and burned the city, then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill. The siege lasted seven months. The Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1,000 pounds (450 kg) of ..
   
3. Title: John Williams (1844). The eccles. Antiquities of the Cymry; or: The ancient British church. Cleaver. pp. 63–. Retrieved 10 August 2012
   Author: John Williams (1844). The eccles. Antiquities of the Cymry; or: The ancient British church. Cleaver. pp. 63–. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
   Publication: Name: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyllin#References;
   Note: Cyllin was a legendary, and possibly historical British king of the 1st century AD, early Christian saint and the last pendragon of Great Britain. His existence is based on very limited evidence.[1] Richard Williams Morgan claimed that a reference to him as a son of Caratacus was found in the family records of Iestyn ab Gwrgant and used this as evidence of early entry of Christianity to Britain; Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners.[2] Reference to Cyllin is also given in Iolo Morganwg's "Third series" of forged Welsh Triads.[3] He is also discussed in the works of Rice Rees, Jane Williams, Sabine Baring-Gould and John Williams (Ab Ithel) as brother of Saint Eigen and father of King Coel.[4][5][6][7] He is also noted in a manuscript giving the genealogy of Taliesin from the collection of Thomas Hopkin of Coychurch along with one from the Havod Uchtryd collection where he is called Cynan, a name often associated with Conan Meriadoc.[8]
   Page: family relationship
   
4. Title: Wikiwand: Cartimandua
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Cartimandua;
   Note: Cartimandua or Cartismandua (reigned c. ad 43 – c. 69) was a 1st-century queen of the Brigantes, a Celtic people living in what is now northern England. She came to power around the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, and formed a large tribal agglomeration that became loyal to Rome. The only account of her is by the Roman historian Tacitus, through which she appears to have been widely influential in early Roman Britain. Her name may be a compound of the Common Celtic roots "carti-," "chase, expel, send" and "*mandu-," pony." History Although Cartimandua is first mentioned by Tacitus as in 51 CE, her rule over the Brigantes may have already been established when the Roman emperor Claudius began the organized conquest of Britain in 43: she may have been one of the eleven "kings" who Claudius's triumphal arch says surrendered without a fight. If not, she may have come to power after a revolt of a faction of the Brigantes was defeated by Publius Ostorius Scapula in 48. Being of "illustrious birth," according to Tacitus, Cartimandua probably inherited her power, as she appears to have ruled by right rather than through marriage. She and her husband, Venutius, are described by Tacitus as loyal to Rome and "defended by our [Roman] arms." In 51, the British resistance leader Caratacus sought sanctuary with Cartimandua after being defeated by Ostorius Scapula in Wales, but Cartimandua handed him over to the Romans in chains. Having given Claudius the greatest exhibit of his triumph, Cartimandua was rewarded with great wealth. She later divorced Venutius, replacing him with his armour-bearer, Vellocatus. In 57, although Cartimandua had seized his brother and other relatives and held them hostage, Venutius made war against her and then against her Roman protectors. He built alliances outside the Brigantes, and during the governorship of Aulus Didius Gallus (52–57) he staged an invasion of the kingdom of the Brigantes. The Romans had anticipated this and sent some cohorts to defend their client queen. The fighting was inconclusive until Caesius Nasica arrived with a legion, the "IX Hispana," and defeated the rebels. Cartimandua retained the throne thanks to prompt military support from Roman forces. She was not so fortunate in 69. Taking advantage of Roman instability during the year of four emperors, Venutius staged another revolt, again with help from other nations. Cartimandua appealed for troops from the Romans, who were only able to send auxiliaries. Cartimandua was evacuated, leaving Venutius in control of a kingdom at war with Rome. After this, Cartimandua disappears from the sources. Representation by Tacitus In his "Annals" and the "Histories," Tacitus presents Cartimandua in a negative light. Although he refers to her loyalty to Rome, he invites the reader to judge her "treacherous" role in the capture of Caratacus, who had sought her protection; her "self-indulgence"; her sexual impropriety in rejecting her husband in favor of a common soldier; and her "cunning stratagems" in taking Venutius' relatives hostage. However, he also consistently names her as a queen ("regina"), the only one such known in early Roman Britain. Boudica, the only other female British leader of the period, is not described in these terms. One of the later medieval Welsh triads likewise mentions "treachery" against Caratacus (Caradoc) by one "Aregwedd Foeddawg," whom some identify with Cartimandua: in a garbled account, Caradoc is made a son of Brân the Blessed who is named as one of the "Three Blessed Kings" for introducing Christianity to the Britons after captivity in Rome. Later references in fiction Cartimandua's life story is fictionalized in Barbara Erskine's novel "Daughters of Fire" and she plays a minor but important role in George Shipway's "The Imperial Governor" as the lover and ally of General Suetonius Paulinus. She is also mentioned in passing in Lindsey Davis's novel "The Jupiter Myth," set during the governorship of Sextus Julius Frontinus, dealing with the aftermath of the Brigantes' revolt. She is also mentioned in "I, Claudius" the TV mini-series. Claudius urges his son Britannicus to go to Britain to hide in the court of Cartimandua to avoid Nero.
   
5. Title: Darrell Wolcott: Maxen Wledig and the Welsh Legends; http://www.ancientwalesstudies.org/id18.html. (Steven Ferry, February 4, 2020.)
   Author: Darrell Wolcott: Maxen Wledig and the Welsh Legends; http://www.ancientwalesstudies.org/id18.html. (Steven Ferry, February 4, 2020.)
   Publication: Name: https://www.geni.com/people/Coellyn-ap-Caradog/6000000034682194678;
   Note: Coellyn ap Caradog ‹ Back to ap Caradog surname How are you related to Coellyn ap Caradog? Connect to the World Family Tree to find out Start your family tree now Coellyn ap Caradog's Geni Profile Contact profile manager View family tree Problem with this page? Share your family tree and photos with the people you know and love Build your family tree online Share photos and videos Smart Matching™ technology Free! Get Started Coellyn ap Caradog French: Coellyn De Bretagne, Roi de Silurie Also Known As: "Cyllin ap Caradog" Birthdate: circa 35 Death: Immediate Family: Son of Caradog ap Bran, King of Siluria and Eurgain of Britain Father of Owain ap Cyllin Managed by: Private User Last Updated: April 26, 2022 View Complete Profile view all Immediate Family Owain ap Cyllin son Caradog ap Bran, King of Siluria father Eurgain of Britain mother About Coellyn ap Caradog
   Page: family relationship
   
6. Title: Wikiwand: Irish language
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Irish_language;
   Note: Irish ("Gaeilge") is a Goidelic language of the Celtic languages family, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family. Irish originated in Ireland and was historically spoken by Irish people throughout Ireland. Irish is spoken as a first language in substantial areas of counties Galway, Kerry, Cork and Donegal, smaller areas of Waterford, Mayo and Meath, and a few other locations, and both by native speakers as well as a second language by a larger group of habitual but non-traditional speakers across the country. Irish has been the dominant language of the Irish people for most of their recorded history, and they brought it with them to other regions, notably Scotland and the Isle of Man, where Middle Irish gave rise to Scottish Gaelic and Manx respectively. It has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. Irish has constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and is an officially recognised minority language in Northern Ireland. It is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland. Names In Irish In "An Caighdeán Oifigiúil" (the official written standard) the name of the language – in the Irish language – is "Gaeilge" (Irish pronunciation: [ˈɡeːlʲɟə]), this being in origin the Connacht form. Before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled "Gaedhilge"; originally this was the genitive of "Gaedhealg," the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include "Gaoidhealg" [ˈɡeːʝəlˠɡ] in Classical Irish and "Goídelc" [ˈɡoiðelˠɡ] in Old Irish. The modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent "dh" in the middle of "Gaedhilge," whereas Goidelic, used to refer to the language family including Irish, is derived from the Old Irish term. Other forms of the name found in the various modern Irish dialects (in addition to south Connacht "Gaeilge" above) include "Gaedhilic"/"Gaeilic"/"Gaeilig" [ˈɡeːlʲɪc] or "Gaedhlag" [ˈɡeːlˠəɡ] in Ulster Irish and northern Connacht Irish and "Gaedhealaing" [ˈɡeːl̪ˠɪɲ] or "Gaoluinn"/"Gaelainn" [ˈɡeːl̪ˠɪnʲ] in Munster Irish. In English The English word for the language is "Irish," which is defined by the European Union as "the Celtic language of Ireland." According to the EU, the "two terms ["Irish" and "Gaelic"] are not synonymous"; it defines "Gaelic" as the "Celtic language group of Ireland and Scotland." This is concurrent with definitions of the term "Gaelic" in both the Cambridge and the Merriam-Webster dictionaries. Alan Titley, an Irish translator and Emeritus Professor of Modern Irish at University College Cork, has illuminated the distinction between the terms "Irish" and "Gaelic" in the following terms: "Irish" is sometimes erroneously referred to as "Gaelic." The Irish language should never be referred to as "Gaelic" because doing so is historically, socially, formally, and linguistically wrong. "Gaelic" is now correctly applied to the principal historic language of Scotland, although it also was referred to (in English) as "Irish" for most of its history. The distinction is not subtle: "Irish" refers to the native language of Ireland, and "Gaelic" refers to the major native language of Scotland, although the term came into common usage only in the past two hundred years, or less. — Alan Titley, in the translator's introduction of The Dirty Dust (2015), p. viii." History Main article: History of the Irish language Written Irish is first attested in "Ogham" inscriptions from the 4th century AD, a stage of the language known as Primitive Irish. These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish transitioned into Old Irish through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the Latin alphabet and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts. During this time, the Irish language absorbed some Latin words, some via Old Welsh, including ecclesiastical terms: examples are "easpag" (bishop) from "episcopus," and "Domhnach" (Sunday, from "dominica"). By the 10th century, Old Irish had evolved into Middle Irish, which was spoken throughout Ireland and in Scotland and the Isle of Man. It is the language of a large corpus of literature, including the Ulster Cycle. From the 12th century, Middle Irish began to evolve into modern Irish in Ireland, into Scottish Gaelic in Scotland, and into the Manx language in the Isle of Man. Early Modern Irish, dating from the 13th century, was the basis of the literary language of both Ireland and Gaelic-speaking Scotland. Modern Irish, as attested in the work of such writers as Geoffrey Keating, may be said to date from the 17th century, and was the medium of popular literature from that time on. From the 18th century on, the language lost ground in the east of the country. The reasons behind this shift were complex but came down to a number of factors: . Discouragement of its use by Anglo-British administrations. . The Catholic church supporting the use of English over Irish. . The spread of bilingualism from the 1750s, resulting in language shift. It was a change characterized by diglossia (two languages being used by the same community in different social and economic situations) and transitional bilingualism (monoglot Irish-speaking grandparents with bilingual children and monoglot English-speaking grandchildren). By the mid-18th century, English was becoming a language of the Catholic middle class, the Catholic Church and public intellectuals, especially in the east of the country. Increasingly, as the value of English became apparent, the prohibition on Irish in schools had the sanction of parents. Once it became apparent that emigration to the United States and Canada was likely for a large portion of the population, the importance of learning English became relevant. This allowed the new immigrants to get jobs in areas other than farming. It has been estimated that, due to the immigration to the United States because of the Famine, anywhere from a quarter to a third of the immigrants were Irish speakers. Irish was not marginal to Ireland's modernization in the 19th century, as often assumed. In the first half of the century there were still around three million people for whom Irish was the primary language, and their numbers alone made them a cultural and social force. Irish speakers often insisted on using the language in law courts (even when they knew English), and Irish was also common in commercial transactions. The language was heavily implicated in the "devotional revolution" that marked the standardization of Catholic religious practice and was also widely used in a political context. Down to the time of the Great Famine and even afterwards, the language was in use by all classes, Irish being an urban as well as a rural language. This linguistic dynamism was reflected in the efforts of certain public intellectuals to counter the decline of the language. At the end of the 19th century, they launched the Gaelic revival in an attempt to encourage the learning and use of Irish, although few adult learners mastered the language. The vehicle of the revival was the Gaelic League ("Conradh na Gaeilge"), and particular emphasis was placed on the folk tradition, which in Irish is particularly rich. Efforts were also made to develop journalism and a modern literature. Although it has been noted that the Catholic Church played a role in the decline of the Irish language before the Gaelic Revival, the Protestant Church of Ireland also made only minor efforts to encourage use of Irish in a religious context. An Irish translation of the Old Testament by Leinsterman Muircheartach Ó Cíonga, commissioned by Bishop Bedell, was published after 1685 along with a translation of the New Testament. Otherwise, Anglicization was seen as synonymous with 'civilizing'" of the native Irish. Currently, modern day Irish speakers in the church are pushing for language revival. Current status Main article: Status of the Irish language Republic of Ireland Irish is recognized by the Constitution of Ireland as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland (English is the other official language). Despite this, almost all government debates and business are conducted in English. In 1938, the founder of Conradh na Gaeilge (Gaelic League), Douglas Hyde, was inaugurated as the first President of Ireland. The record of his delivering his inaugural "Declaration of Office" in Roscommon Irish is one of only a few recordings of that dialect. In the 2016 census, 10.5% of respondents stated that they spoke Irish, either daily or weekly, while over 70,000 people speak it as a habitual daily means of communication. From the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922 (see also History of the Republic of Ireland), a degree of proficiency in Irish was required of all those newly appointed to the Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland, including postal workers, tax collectors, agricultural inspectors, Garda Síochána, etc. By law if a Garda was stopped and addressed in Irish he had to respond in Irish as well. Proficiency in just one official language for entrance to the public service was introduced in 1974, in part through the actions of protest organisations like the Language Freedom Movement. Although the Irish requirement also was dropped for wider public service jobs, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools within the Republic which receive public money (see also Education in the Republic of Ireland). Those wishing to teach in primary schools in the State must also pass a compulsory examination called "Scrúdú Cáilíochta sa Ghaeilge." The need for a pass in Leaving Certificate Irish or English for entry to the Garda Síochána (police) was introduced in September 2005, and recruits are given lessons in the language during their ..
   
7. Title: Wikiwand: Common Brittonic
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Common_Brittonic;
   Note: Common Brittonic was an ancient Celtic language spoken in Britain. It is also variously known as Old Brittonic, British, and Common or Old Brythonic. By the sixth century AD, this language of the Celtic Britons was starting to split into the various Neo-Brittonic languages: Welsh, Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and probably the Pictish language. Common Brittonic is a form of Insular Celtic, which is descended from Proto-Celtic, a hypothetical parent language that, by the first half of the first millennium BC, was already diverging into separate dialects or languages. There is some evidence that the Pictish language may have had close ties to Common Brittonic, and might have been either a sister language or a fifth branch. Evidence from Welsh shows a great influence from Latin on Common Brittonic during the Roman period, and especially so in terms related to the Church and Christianity, which are nearly all Latin derivatives. Common Brittonic was later replaced in most of Scotland by Middle Irish (which later developed into Scottish Gaelic) and south of the Firth of Forth also by Old English (which later developed into Scots). Brittonic was gradually replaced by English throughout England; in southern Scotland and Cumbria, Cumbric disappeared in the 12th century and, in the south, Cornish survived until the 19th century, although modern attempts to revitalize it have met with some success. O'Rahilly's historical model suggests the possibility that there was a Brittonic (P-Celtic) language in Ireland before the arrival of Goidelic languages (Q-Celtic) there, but this view has not found wide acceptance. History Sources No documents written in Common Brittonic have been found, but a few inscriptions have been identified. The Bath curse tablets, found in the Roman reservoir at Bath, Somerset, contain about 150 names, about half of which are undoubtedly Celtic (but not necessarily Brittonic). There is an inscription on a metal pendant discovered in 1979 in Bath, which seems to contain an ancient Brittonic curse: "Adixoui Deuina Deieda Andagin Uindiorix cuamenai or maybe Adixoui Deiana Deieda Andagin Uindiorix cuamiinai The affixed – Deuina, Deieda, Andagin, (and) Uindiorix – I have bound." An alternative translation taking into account case marking ("-rix" "king" nominative, "andagin" "[worthless] woman" accusative, "dewina deieda," "divine Deieda" nominative/vocative) is: "May I, Windiorix for/at Cuamena defeat (alt. summon to justice) the worthless woman, oh divine Deieda." There is also a tin/lead sheet with part of 9 lines of text. This is damaged, but seems to contain Brittonic names (see Tomlin 1987). British toponyms are another type of evidence, recorded in Latinized forms by Ptolemy's "Geography." The place names of Roman Britain were discussed by Rivet and Smith in their book of that name published in 1979. They show that the majority of names used were derived from Common Brittonic. Some English place names still contain elements derived from Common Brittonic. Some Brittonic personal names are also recorded. Tacitus' "Agricola" noted that the language of Britain differed little from that of Gaul. Comparison with what is known of the Gaulish language suggests a close relationship with Brittonic. Pritenic Pritenic (also Pretanic) is a modern term that has been coined to label the language of the inhabitants of prehistoric Scotland during Roman rule in southern Great Britain (1st to 5th centuries). Within the disputed P-Celtic vs. Q-Celtic division of the Celtic languages, "Pritenic" would thus be either a sister or daughter language of Common Brittonic, both deriving from a common P-Celtic language spoken around the 1st century BC. The evidence for the language consists of place-names, tribal names and personal names recorded by Greek and Latin writers in accounts of northern Britain. These names have been discussed by Kenneth H. Jackson, in "The Problem of the Picts," who considered some of them to be Pritenic but had reservations about most of them. Katherine Forsyth (1997) reviewed these names and considers more of them to be Celtic, still recognizing that some names of islands and rivers may be pre-Indo-European. The rarity of survival of Pritenic names is probably due to Dál Riatan and Norse settlement in the area. The dialect position of Pritenic has been discussed by Jackson and by Koch (1955). Their conclusions are that Pritenic and Common Brittonic had split by the 1st century. The Roman frontier between Britannia and Pictland is likely to have increased the split. By the 8th century, Bede considered Pictish and Welsh/British to be separate languages. Diversification Common Brittonic was used with Latin following the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD, at least in major settlements. A number of Latin words were borrowed by Brittonic speakers. The Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain during the 6th century marked the beginning of a decline in the language, as it was gradually replaced by Old English. Some Brittonic speakers migrated to Armorica and Galicia. By 700, Brittonic was mainly restricted to North West England and Southern Scotland, Wales, Cornwall and Devon, and Brittany. In these regions, it evolved into Cumbric, Welsh, Cornish and Breton, respectively. Phonology Consonants (Late) Common Brittonic consonants [chart] Vowels (Early) Common Brittonic vowels [chart] The early Common Brittonic vowel inventory is effectively identical to that of Proto-Celtic. /ɨ/ and /ʉ/ have not developed yet. (Late) Common Brittonic vowels [chart] Notes: The central mid vowels /ə/ and /ɵ̞/ were allophonic developments of /i/ and /u/, respectively. Grammar Through comparative linguistics, it is possible to reconstruct the declension paradigms of Common Brittonic: First declension Brittonic *tōtā "tribe" and cognates in other languages [chart] Notes: . The dative dual and plural represent the inherited instrumental forms, which replaced the inherited dative dual and plural, from Proto-Celtic *toutābom, *toutābos. Second declension [chart] Notes: . 2nd declension stems deviate from the paradigm as such: Neuter 2nd declension stem *cradion [chart] Notes: . Dual is same as singular . All other declensions same as regular 2nd declension paradigm Third declension Brittonic *carrecis and cognates in other languages [chart] Place names Common Brittonic survives today in a few English place names and river names. However, some of these may be pre-Celtic. The best example is perhaps that of the River(s) Avon, which comes from the Brittonic "abona," which translates into "river" (compare Welsh "afon," Cornish "avon," Irish and Scottish Gaelic "abhainn," Manx "awin," Breton "aven"; the Latin cognate is "amnis"). Examples of place names derived from the Brittonic languages Main article: Celtic toponymy Brittonic-derived place-names are scattered across Great Britain, with many occurring in the West Country; some examples are: . "Avon" from "abonā" = "river" (cf. Welsh "afon," Cornish "avon," Breton "aven") . "Britain" from "Pritani" = (possibly) "People of the Forms" (cf. Welsh "Prydain," "Britain," "pryd," "appearance, form, image, resemblance"; Irish "cruth," "appearance, shape," Old Irish "Cruithin" "Picts") . "Cheviot' from "cev-" = "ridge" and "-ed," a noun suffix . "Dover" from "Dubrīs" = "waters" (cf. Welsh "dŵr,' older "dwfr," plural "dyfroedd," Cornish "dowr," Breton "dour") . 'Kent" from "canto-" = "border" (cf. Welsh "cant(el)" "rim, brim," Breton "kant") . "Lothian" ("Lleuddiniawn" in medieval Welsh) from "Lugudũn(iãnon)," "Fort of Lugus" . "Severn" from "Sabrīna," perhaps the name of a goddess (in Welsh, "Hafren") . "Thanet' from "tan-eto-" = "(place of the) bonfire" (cf. Welsh "tân," "fire," Cornish 'tanses," Old Breton "tanet," "aflame") . "Thames" from "Tamesis" = "dark" (akin to Welsh "tywyll," "darkness," Cornish "tewal," Breton "teñval," from Brittonic "temeselo-"; Irish "teimheal") . "York" from "Ebur-ākon" = "stand of yew trees" (cf. Welsh "Efrog," from efwr "cow parsnip, hogweed" + "-og" "abundant in," Breton "evor" "alder buckthorn," Scottish Gaelic i"ubhar 'yew,'" "iùbhrach," "stand/grove of yew trees") via Latin "Eburacum" > OE "Eoforwīc '(re-analyzed with OE roots as 'boar-village') > ON "Jórvík" The words "tor," "combe," "bere," and "hele" of Brittonic origin are particularly common in Devon as elements of place-names, often combined with elements of English origin. Compound names sometimes occur across England, such as "Derwentwater" or "Chetwood," (cf. Welsh "coed," Breton "koad") which contain the same element translated in both languages.
   
8. Title: Wikiwand: Togodumnus
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Togodumnus;
   Note: Togodumnus (d. AD 43) was a historical king of the British Catuvellauni tribe at the time of the Roman conquest. He can probably be identified with the legendary British king Guiderius. He is usually thought to have led the fight against the Romans alongside his brother, but to have been killed early in the campaign. However, some authorities now argue that he sided with the Romans and is one and the same person as the client-king Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus, whose original name may have been Togidubnus or Togodumnus. Career Togodumnus is known only from Cassius Dio's "Roman History," according to which he was a son of Cunobelinus. He probably succeeded his father to the kingship of the Catuvellauni, who were the dominant kingdom in the southeast of Britain at this time. Their territory took in the lands of several other nations, including their neighbours the Trinovantes, and possibly the Dobunni further west. He had two notable brothers, Adminius and Caratacus. In Cunobelinus's later days Adminius gained control of the Cantiaci in Kent, but was driven from Britain in 40 AD, seeking refuge with the Roman emperor Caligula. Caligula planned an invasion of Britain in response, but called it off at the last minute. Based on coin distribution it appears that Caratacus, following in the footsteps of his uncle Epaticcus, completed the conquest of the Atrebates, the main rival to the Catuvellauni, in the early 40s. The Atrebatian king, Verica, fled to Rome and gave the new emperor, Claudius, a pretext to conquer Britain in 43. Death According to Dio's account, Togodumnus led the initial resistance to the invasion alongside Caratacus, but was killed after the battle on the Thames. The Roman commander Aulus Plautius then dug in at the Thames and sent word for Claudius to join him for the final march on the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Dio says that this was because the resistance became fiercer as the Britons tried to avenge Togodumnus, and Plautius needed the emperor's help to complete the conquest; however, as Claudius was no military man and in the end spent only sixteen days in Britain, it is likely the Britons were already as good as beaten. Leadership passed to Caratacus, who took the fight outside Roman-controlled territory and remained at large until 51. Togodumnus and Togidubnus Tacitus mentions a king who ruled several territories as a loyal ally of Rome into the later part of the first century, called Cogidumnus in most manuscripts but Togidumnus in one. A damaged inscription, naming him "..gidubnus," places him in Chichester. The similarity of name has led some, including Barry Cunliffe of Oxford University, to suggest that they may be one and the same. John Hind argues that Dio was mistaken to write that Togodumnus died after the battle on the Thames: that the Greek word "φθαρεντὸς," "perished," may be Dio's mis-translation of a more ambiguous Latin word, "amisso," "lost," in one of his hypothetical sources, that in fact Togodumnus was defeated rather than killed, and that the Britons wanted to avenge his defeat rather than his death. He goes on to propose that Togodumnus, having submitted to the Romans, was appointed by them as a friendly king over the territories of the Regini, the Atrebates, the Belgae and the Dobunni, becoming the loyal king referred to by Tacitus.
   
9. Title: Cyllin
   Author: Cyllin
   Publication: Name: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyllin#References;
   Note: Cyllin was a legendary, and possibly historical British king of the 1st century AD, early Christian saint and the last pendragon of Great Britain. His existence is based on very limited evidence.[1] Richard Williams Morgan claimed that a reference to him as a son of Caratacus was found in the family records of Iestyn ab Gwrgant and used this as evidence of early entry of Christianity to Britain; Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners.[2] Reference to Cyllin is also given in Iolo Morganwg's "Third series" of forged Welsh Triads.[3] He is also discussed in the works of Rice Rees, Jane Williams, Sabine Baring-Gould and John Williams (Ab Ithel) as brother of Saint Eigen and father of King Coel.[4][5][6][7] He is also noted in a manuscript giving the genealogy of Taliesin from the collection of Thomas Hopkin of Coychurch along with one from the Havod Uchtryd collection where he is called Cynan, a name often associated with Conan Meriadoc.[8] References Anonymous (31 March 2004). The Genealogy Of Iestyn The Son Of Gwrgan. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 513–. ISBN 978-0-7661-8411-4. Retrieved 10 August 2012. Richard Williams Morgan (1861). St. Paul in Britain; or, The origin of British as opposed to papal Christianity. pp. 161–. Retrieved 8 August 2012. Iolo Morganwg (1801). The triads of Britain. Wildwood House. ISBN 978-0-7045-0290-1. Retrieved 8 August 2012. Rice Rees (1836). An essay on the Welsh saints or the primitive Christians, usually considered to have been the founders of the churches in Wales. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman. pp. 82–. Retrieved 10 August 2012. Jane Williams (18 November 2010). A History of Wales: Derived from Authentic Sources. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–. ISBN 978-1-108-02085-5. Retrieved 10 August 2012. S. Baring-Gould; John Fisher (30 June 2005). The Lives of the British Saints: The Saints of Wales, Cornwall and Irish Saints. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 218–. ISBN 978-0-7661-8765-8. Retrieved 10 August 2012. John Williams (1844). The eccles. Antiquities of the Cymry; or: The ancient British church. Cleaver. pp. 63–. Retrieved 10 August 2012. Mabinogion (1849). The Mabinogion, from the Llyfr coch o Hergest, and other ancient Welsh MSS., with an Engl. pp. 391–. Retrieved 10 August 2012. External links Works related to Triads of Britain at Wikisource
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10. Title: Wikiwand: Catuvellauni
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Catuvellauni;
    Note: The Catuvellauni were a Celtic tribe or state of southeastern Britain before the Roman conquest, attested by inscriptions into the 4th century. The fortunes of the Catuvellauni and their kings before the conquest can be traced through ancient coins and scattered references in classical histories. They are mentioned by Cassius Dio, who implies that they led the resistance against the conquest in AD 43. They appear as one of the "civitates" of Roman Britain in Ptolemy's "Geography" in the 2nd century, occupying the town of Verlamion (modern St Albans) and the surrounding areas of Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire and southern Cambridgeshire. The fortunes of the Catuvellauni and their kings before the conquest can be traced through ancient coins and scattered references in classical histories. They are mentioned by Cassius Dio, who implies that they led the resistance against the conquest in AD 43. They appear as one of the civitates of Roman Britain in Ptolemy's Geography in the 2nd century, occupying the town of Verlamion (modern St Albans) and the surrounding areas of Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire and southern Cambridgeshire. Their territory was bordered to the north by the Iceni and Corieltauvi, to the east by the Trinovantes, to the west by the Dobunni and Atrebates, and to the south by the Regnenses and Cantiaci. Before the Roman conquest The Catuvellauni are part of the Aylesford-Swarling archaeological group in Southern England often linked to Belgic Gaul and possibly to an actual Belgic conquest of the region alluded to by Caesar. John T. Koch conjectures that the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains and the modern name of Châlons-en-Champagne preserves the name of an original continental tribe of Catuvellauni, a name he derives from a compound of the ancient Celtic roots *katu- ("battle") and *wer-lo ("better"), thus meaning "excelling in battle," the same source as that of the later British and Breton personal name Cadwallon. Cassivellaunus, who led the resistance to Julius Caesar's first expedition to Britain in 54 BC, is often taken to have belonged to the Catuvellauni. His tribal background is not mentioned by Caesar, but his territory, north of the Thames and to the west of the Trinovantes, corresponds to that later occupied by the Catuvellauni. The extensive earthworks at Devil's Dyke near Wheathampstead, Hertfordshire are thought to have been the tribe's original capital. Tasciovanus was the first king to mint coins at Verlamion, beginning ca 20 BC. He appears to have expanded his power at the expense of the Trinovantes to the east, as some of his coins, ca 15–10 BC, were minted in their capital Camulodunum (modern Colchester). This advance was given up, possibly under pressure from Rome, and a later series of coins were again minted at Verulamium.
    
11. Title: Anonymous (31 March 2004). The Genealogy Of Iestyn The Son Of Gwrgan. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 513–. ISBN 978-0-7661-8411-4. Retrieved 10 August 2012
    Author: Anonymous (31 March 2004). The Genealogy Of Iestyn The Son Of Gwrgan. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 513–. ISBN 978-0-7661-8411-4. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
    Publication: Name: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyllin#References;
    
12. Title: The Heroic Age: Brigantia, Cartimandua and Gwenhwyfar
    Author: "The Heroic Age," Issue 1, Spring/Summer 1999 "Brigantia, Cartimandua and Gwenhwyfar," by Michelle Ziegler, Belleville, Illinois
    Publication: Name: https://web.archive.org/web/20060702223938/http://www.mun.ca/mst/heroicage/issues/1/habcg.htm;
    Note: The name "Brigantia" represents three separate concepts: a goddess, a people, and a tribal federation. By the Roman period, the name represented a tribal federation compromising all of what would become the Roman province of Britannia Secunda, except for the Parisi territory, east of the River Derwent. According to Ptolemy, Brigantian territory stretched from sea to sea, making its people the most numerous in Britain (Higham 1987:9). Initially, the entire Brigantian federation entered into the empire as a single civitas, whose capital was at Isurium Brigantium, modern Aldborough. During the post-Roman period, the province of Britannia Secunda reverted to a state more reminiscent of its pre-Roman tribal society. The civitas of the Parisi quickly became the kingdom of Deira (Dumville 1989). Rheged appears to have been formed from the civitas of the Carvetii (Dark 1994:71-72). The Civitas Brigantium became divided into the regions or kingdoms of Elmet, Craven, and perhaps Brigantia, located on an axis from York to Catterick, plus probably others whose names have not survived. Aldborough/Isurium Brigantia was occupied in the fifth century but the civitas capital of the Brigantes would likely have been relocated to Eboracum (York; Dark 1994:72-74). The term Brigantia and the concept of the goddess Brigantia survived into the post-Roman period. John Koch has tentatively translated two stanzas of the poem "Y Gododdin" to read "as [?] Brigantia rose, ascending towards the sky" (A.58) and "the man who [?]went down into [?] Brigantia was slain on a spear shaft" (A.71) (Koch 1997:107, 113). Catterick, the site of the main action in "Y Gododdin" was deep in pre-Roman Brigantian territory. All of the known post-Roman northern leaders located within the former territory of the Brigantian federation are found within the dynasty of Coel Hen the Protector. This creation of this super-dynasty may indicate that regions as far separate as Rheged in Cumbria and Elmet in southeastern Brigantia were linked together in some sort of political union. This union could have taken several forms, from an actual federation with a supreme king to an alliance of tribes with a dominant king, or alternatively, a succession of dominant kings exerting hegemony over the other kingdoms of the former province of Britannia Secunda. If the dynasty of Coel Hen can be seen to have been used by later scribes as a justification or rationalization for the reformation of the Brigantia polity, the localization of the Coeling dynasts suggests Brigantian territory extended beyond its limits under the Romans to include the Gododdin and part of Galloway. Although fourth-century Roman forts were abandoned all over Britain, Kenneth Dark observed "that out of at most 16 sites with later 5th-6th century evidence no fewer than 14 had probably been under the command of the Dux Britanniarum at the end of the 4th century" (Dark 1998). Not only were these sites reoccupied, they were refortified and Saxon mercenaries may have been recruited to man them, as mentioned in the "Historia Brittonum" (Dark 1992). The high status of these sites is illustrated by the British halls found in Birdoswald fortress (Dark 1992) and the fifth-century Christian church found in the fortress of Vindolanda (Wilkinson 1998). Further occupation has been found at the two towns closest to the Wall, Carlisle and Corbridge, plus the other Brigantian towns of Catterick, Aldborough, York and Malton (Dark 1992). Place names and Welsh tradition further specifically associate the Coelings with the Mote of Liddel, Papcastle (Derventio), and Catterick (Miller 1975). All of these sites are believed to be located within pre-Roman Brigantian territory. In the fifth and sixth centuries, which have been called the Age of Arthur, the tribes of Greater Brigantia were indeed on their way to becoming a major power again. The combination of extensive fortification of the abandoned Roman sites and a dynasty that includes rulers located throughout the former Brigantian territory suggests that either the federation actually or functionally became reformed by alliance and/or hegemony. With the rebirth of Greater Brigantian independence, the pre-Roman past would have been recalled with pride and sorrow. The Fall of Brigantia When the Romans arrived in the first century, they found the vast Brigantian tribal federation in the neck of Britain organized under Queen Cartimandua (c. 43 to c. 70 AD), whose seat was at the massive fortification of Stanwick6 Cartimandua's husband was acknowledged as king, assuming the role as the Brigantian warlord. The Roman historian Tacitus ("Annals" 12.40, 2-7; "Histories" 3.45; Koch 1995:39-40) specifically acknowledges that it was Cartimandua, the living symbol of Brigantia, who held the ultimate power among the Brigantes and had an active role in choosing her husband/warlord. Indeed, it has been suggested that the Welsh word for king, "brenin," is derived from "brigantinos," meaning "the consort of Brigantia (Koch 1995:39)." The Romans must have been pleased when they found that Cartimandua favored establishing formal contacts and alliances with them. Although firm evidence is lacking, it is believed that Brigantia became a Roman client kingdom as early as the 40's AD (Hanson and Campbell 1986:73). Initially, Brigantia prospered as a client state and grew wealthy. In 51 AD, Caratacus, son of Cunobelinus, the leader of Celtic resistance to the Romans in the south, was captured and brought before Cartimandua, who promptly turned him over to the Romans. Tacitus (3.45; Koch 1995:40) credited Cartimandua's capture of Caratacus as "having secured the most important component of Emperor Claudius's triumph." In c. 69 AD, Cartimandua divorced her husband Venutius and took as her husband another warrior named Vellocatus ("better in battle"), Venutius' former armor bearer. However, this was no simple divorce for, by this action, her new husband became king. Tacitus (3.45; Koch 1995:39-40) recorded that the divorce and remarriage prompted a civil war among the Brigantes because the majority of the people preferred Venutius as king. Yet, Cartimandua's will prevailed, "favoring the illegitimate husband [Vellocatus] were the queen's libido and her ferocious temper (Tacitus 3.45; Koch 1995:40)." Venutius, who had previously fought for the Romans, turned to the anti-Roman faction among the Brigantes for support and ignited a civil war. The war continued for some time among the Brigantes until Venutius was on the eve of victory. With Cartimandua in a compromised position, the Romans intervened to save their ally (Salway 1993:92). Roman intervention saved Cartimandua but in the end her actions gave the Romans an excuse to conquer Brigantia. The Romans could not tolerate the long Brigantian border in the hands of a hostile king who could not only attack the south himself but also harbor Roman enemies from the south (Salway 1993:92). To the Brigantians, the fault for their conquest by the Romans would have fallen squarely on the shoulders of Cartimandua and the war between her husbands . . . and would not have been forgotten. Cartimandua was capable of such behavior because she was a living representative of the goddess of sovereignty, Brigantia (Koch 1995:39-40; Ross 1996:354-355). According to Anne Ross, "Cartimandua's powerful role in Roman times may suggest that society recognized the power of the goddess by mirroring her authority in its own temporal ruler. . . . This particular goddess may have been as much concerned with the actual tribal hegemony as with the territory (Ross 1996:456)." According to Patrick Ford, horses were intimately associated with goddesses of sovereignty (Ford 1977: 8-10). It is possible that Cartimandua inherited this role since her name literally means "sleek pony (Ross 1996:449)." Brigantia was a goddess who manifested herself in three forms. If we can take her later manifestation in Ireland as a guide, Cormac's "Glossary" tells us Brigantia represented first and foremost sovereignty, with her other two aspects representing healing and metal-working (Byrne 1973; Ross 1996:456). Anne Ross further identifies Brigantia as a patroness of pastoral peoples in Ireland and Britain. The advent of Christianity did not abolish the role of Brigantia as a symbol of sovereignty. According to John Koch, "a further survival of this idea is seen in the fragmentary elegy to the 7th century Welsh king Cadwallon in which the River Braint (<*Briganti) is described as overflowing in grief for its fallen consort." Cartimandua and Gwenhwyfar The similarity between the activity of Cartimandua and the fate of Brigantia in the first century with Arthur's Queen Gwenhwyfar (Guinevere) and the fall of Arthur's realm in Geoffrey's "History of the Kings of Britain" is striking. The case of Cartimandua takes a mythical possibility for the activities of the personification of Brigantia into the realm of historical fact. Like Cartimandua, Gwenhwyfar is said to have replaced her husband Arthur with his trusted commander Medraut (Modred). According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Medraut (Modred) recruited foreign troops from the Saxons; similarly, Cartimandua recruited help from the Romans. The result in both cases is a ferocious civil war that leads to the destruction of the kingdom and eventual domination by an outside force. Both parties also recruited foreigners; the Romans in the first century and the Angles in the fifth-to-seventh-centuries in the north. Exactly ten years after Arthur's death at Camlann in the "Annales Cambriae," Ida founds Anglian Bernicia, the original Anglian kingdom that grew into Northumbria. However, Arthur's fall originally may not have been considered a key event in the Anglian domination of Britain. In both cases, the queen herself survives unharmed; Gwenhwyfar fled to a convent, and Cartimandua was rescued by her Romans allies. Both Gwenhwyfar and Cartimandua would have ..
    
13. Title: Wikiwand: Caradog ap Bran
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Caradog_ap_Bran;
    Note: Caradog ap Bran (sometimes spelled as Caradoc) is the son of the British king Bran the Blessed in Welsh mythology and literature, who appears most prominently in the second branch of the Mabinogi, the tale of Branwen ferch Llŷr. He is further mentioned in the Welsh Triads and in certain medieval Welsh genealogies. Caradog is the grandson of the sea god Llŷr, the nephew of Manawydan, Branwen, Efnisien and Nisien. Role in Welsh tradition The Irish king Matholwch sails to Harlech to speak with Bran the Blessed, high king of the Island of the Mighty and to ask for the hand of his sister Branwen in marriage, thus forging an alliance between the two islands. Bendigeidfran agrees to Matholwch's request, but the celebrations are cut short when Efnisien, a half-brother to the children of Llŷr, brutally mutilates Matholwch's horses, angry that his permission was not sought in regards to the marriage. Matholwch is deeply offended until Bran offers him compensation in the form of a magic cauldron that can restore the dead to life. Pleased with the gift, Matholwch and Branwen sail back to Ireland to reign. Once in Matholwch's kingdom, Branwen gives birth to a son, Gwern, but Efnysien's insult continues to rankle among the Irish and, eventually, Branwen is mistreated, banished to the kingdom and beaten every day. She tames a starling and sends it across the Irish Sea with a message to her brother Bendigeidfran, who raises a huge host in preparation for invasion. A council is held among the British and it is decided that seven men should stay behind to defend Britain; Bran's son Caradog is given seniority over the chieftains, namely Hefeydd the Tall, Unig Strong Shoulder, Iddig ab Anarawd, Ffodor ab Erfyll, Wlch Bone Lip, Llassar fab Llasar Llaes Gyngwyd and Pendaran Dyfed. Bran's host sails across the Irish Sea. Upon Bran's departure, Caradog and his men are attacked by his uncle, Caswallawn fab Beli, who murders Caradog's men whilst concealed by a cloak of invisibility. Caradog, whom Caswallawn had not intended to kill, breaks his heart in despair at the deaths of his kinsmen, and Caswallawn ascends to the throne. Caradog's paternal uncle Manawydan learns of his nephew's death upon his return from Ireland and submits to the usurper. The triads allude to both Caradog's role as a defender of Britain and to his death; Triad 13 names him as one of the Chief Defenders of Britain, while Triad 95 refers to him as one of the three people who broke their hearts out of bewilderment.
    
14. Title: Wikiwand: Roman conquest of Britain
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Roman_conquest_of_Britain;
    Note: The Roman conquest of Britain was a gradual process, beginning effectively in AD 43 under Emperor Claudius, whose general Aulus Plautius served as first governor of Roman Britain (Latin: "Britannia"). Recruitment for the Roman army was generally based in Italia, Hispania, and Gaul. The invasion force was made up in a fashion not quite different from most Roman legions: There were the usual legions made up of cohorts and centurions, and auxilia making up archers and ranged troops, as well as usage of a small group of cavalry. Many specialists were also brought along, including stonemasons, medical specialists, clerks, armorers, and artificers. Legionaries tended to be equipped with strip armor, a breakaway from the commonly used leather jerkin of yester year, a change not exclusive to Roman Britain. Legionaries used javelins and short swords as attacking weapons, referred to as "pilum" and "gladius" respectively in Latin. In terms of naval practices, which were essential for the crossing of the English Channel, the Romans created an entirely new ship, the Mediterranean war galley, which were much thicker in wood and more stable on rough waters. The Roman army embarked upon the newly formed "Classis Britannica" fleet and sailed across the English Channel by nightfall to begin the invasion of Britain. The Romans forced their way inland through several battles against Celtic tribes, including the Battle of the Medway, the Battle of the Thames, the Battle of Caer Caradoc and the Battle of Mona. Following a general uprising in which the Celts sacked Camulodunum, Verulamium and Londinium, the Romans suppressed the rebellion in the Battle of Watling Street and went on to push as far north as central Caledonia in the Battle of Mons Graupius. Tribes in modern-day Scotland and northern England repeatedly rebelled against Roman rule and two military bases were established in Britain to protect against rebellion and incursions from the north, from which Roman troops built and manned Hadrian's Wall. Background Great Britain had already frequently been the target of invasions, planned and actual, by forces of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. In common with other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had enjoyed diplomatic and trading links with the Romans in the century since Julius Caesar's expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, and Roman economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman Iron Age, especially in the south. Between 55 BC and the 40s AD, the "status quo" of tribute, hostages, and client states without direct military occupation, begun by Caesar's invasions of Britain, largely remained intact. Augustus prepared invasions in 34 BC, 27 BC and 25 BC. The first and third were called off due to revolts elsewhere in the empire, the second because the Britons seemed ready to come to terms According to Augustus's "Res Gestae," two British kings, Dubnovellaunus and Tincomarus, fled to Rome as supplicants during his reign, and Strabo's "Geography," written during this period, says Britain paid more in customs and duties than could be raised by taxation if the island were conquered. By the 40s AD, the political situation within Britain was apparently in ferment. The Catuvellauni had displaced the Trinovantes as the most powerful kingdom in south-eastern Britain, taking over the former Trinovantian capital of Camulodunum (Colchester), and were pressing their neighbours the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Julius Caesar's former ally Commius. Caligula may have planned a campaign against the Britons in AD 40, but its execution was unclear: according to Suetonius' "The Twelve Caesars," he drew up his troops in battle formation facing the English Channel and, once his forces had become quite confused, ordered them to gather seashells, referring to them as "plunder from the ocean due to the Capitol and the Palace." Alternatively, he may have actually told them to gather "huts," since the word musculi was also soldier's slang for engineer's huts and Caligula himself was very familiar with the Empire's soldiers. In any case this readied the troops and facilities that would make Claudius' invasion possible three years later. For example, Caligula built a lighthouse at "Bononia" (modern Boulogne-sur-Mer), the "Tour D'Ordre," that provided a model for the one built soon after at "Dubris" (Dover). Claudian preparations In 43, possibly by re-collecting Caligula's troops from 40, Claudius mounted an invasion force to re-instate Verica, an exiled king of the Atrebates. Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator, was given overall charge of four legions, totaling about 20,000 men, plus about the same number of auxiliaries. The legions were: . Legio II "Augusta" – The Second Augustan Legion . Legio IX "Hispana" – The Ninth Spanish Legion . Legio XIV "Gemina" – The Fourteenth Twin Legion . Legio XX "Valeria Victrix" – The Twentieth Legion Valiant and Victorious The "II Augusta" is known to have been commanded by the future emperor Vespasian. Three other men of appropriate rank to command legions are known from the sources to have been involved in the invasion. Cassius Dio mentions Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, who probably led the IX Hispana, and Vespasian's brother Titus Flavius Sabinus the Younger. He wrote that Sabinus was Vespasian's lieutenant, but as Sabinus was the older brother and preceded Vespasian into public life, he could hardly have been a military tribune. Eutropius mentions Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus, although as a former consul he may have been too senior, and perhaps accompanied Claudius later. Crossing and landing Main article: Site of the Claudian invasion of Britain The main invasion force under Aulus Plautius crossed in three divisions. The port of departure is usually taken to have been Boulogne (Latin: "Bononia"), and the main landing at Rutupiae (Richborough, on the east coast of Kent). Neither of these locations is certain. Dio does not mention the port of departure, and although Suetonius says that the secondary force under Claudius sailed from Boulogne, it does not necessarily follow that the entire invasion force did. Richborough has a large natural harbour which would have been suitable, and archaeology shows Roman military occupation at about the right time. However, Dio says the Romans sailed east to west, and a journey from Boulogne to Richborough is south to north. Some historians suggest a sailing from Boulogne to the Solent, landing in the vicinity of Noviomagus (Chichester) or Southampton, in territory formerly ruled by Verica. An alternative explanation might be a sailing from the mouth of the Rhine to Richborough, which would be east to west. River battles British resistance was led by Togodumnus and Caratacus, sons of the late king of the Catuvellauni, Cunobeline. A substantial British force met the Romans at a river crossing thought to be near Rochester on the River Medway. The battle raged for two days. Gnaeus Hosidius Geta was almost captured, but recovered and turned the battle so decisively that he was awarded the "Roman triumph." The British were pushed back to the Thames. They were pursued by the Romans across the river causing some Roman losses in the marshes of Essex. Whether the Romans made use of an existing bridge for this purpose or built a temporary one is uncertain. At least one division of auxiliary Batavian troops swam across the river as a separate force. Togodumnus died shortly after the battle on the Thames. Plautius halted and sent word for Claudius to join him for the final push. Cassius Dio presents this as Plautius needing the emperor's assistance to defeat the resurgent British, who were determined to avenge Togodumnus. However, Claudius was no military man. Claudius's arch says he received the surrender of eleven kings without any loss, and Suetonius' "The Twelve Caesars" says that Claudius received the surrender of the Britons without battle or bloodshed. It is likely that the Catuvellauni were already as good as beaten, allowing the emperor to appear as conqueror on the final march on Camulodunum. Cassius Dio relates that he brought war elephants and heavy armaments which would have overawed any remaining native resistance. Eleven tribes of South East Britain surrendered to Claudius and the Romans prepared to move further west and north. The Romans established their new capital at Camulodunum and Claudius returned to Rome to celebrate his victory. Caratacus escaped and would continue the resistance further west. AD 44–60 Vespasian took a force westwards subduing tribes and capturing "oppida" as he went, going at least as far as Exeter, which would appear to have become an early base for Leg. II Augusta. Legio IX Hispana was sent north towards Lincoln (Latin: "Lindum Colonia") and within four years of the invasion it is likely that an area south of a line from the Humber to the Severn Estuary was under Roman control. That this line is followed by the Roman road of the Fosse Way has led many historians to debate the route's role as a convenient frontier during the early occupation. It is more likely that the border between Roman and Iron Age Britain was less direct and more mutable during this period. Late in 47 the new governor of Britain, Publius Ostorius Scapula, began a campaign against the tribes of modern-day Wales, and the Cheshire Gap. The Silures of southeast Wales caused considerable problems to Ostorius and fiercely defended the Welsh border country. Caratacus himself was defeated in the Battle of Caer Caradoc and fled to the Roman client tribe of the Brigantes who occupied the Pennines. Their queen, Cartimandua was unable or unwilling to protect him however given her own truce with the Romans and handed him over to the invaders. Ostorius died and was replaced by Aulus Didius Gallus who brought the Welsh borders under control but did not move further north or west, probably because Claudius wa..
    
15. Title: Wikiwand: Ancient Greek
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Ancient_Greek;
    Note: The ancient Greek language includes the forms of Greek used in Ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often roughly divided into the Archaic period (9th to 6th centuries BC), Classical period (5th and 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic period (Koine Greek, 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD). It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek and succeeded by Medieval Greek. Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage on its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek and in its latest form it approaches Medieval Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects. Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language. Dialects Main article: Ancient Greek dialects Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, and Doric, many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems, the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey," and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. History The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek, but its relationship to the historical dialects and the historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasion(s)—and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people — Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from the center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: . West Group . Northwest Greek . Doric . Aeolic Group . Aegean/Asiatic Aeolic . Thessalian . Boeotian . Ionic-Attic Group . Attic . Ionic . Euboean and colonies in Italy . Cycladic . Asiatic Ionic . Arcadocypriot Greek . Arcadian . Cypriot West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West is called ‘East Greek’. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek, spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian, the dialect of Sparta), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian). The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek. All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. The dialects outside the Ionic group are known mainly from inscriptions, notable exceptions being: . fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos, in Aeolian, and . the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar and other lyric poets, usually in Doric. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek, but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek. By about the 6th century CE, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek. Related languages or dialects Main article: Ancient Macedonian language Ancient Macedonian was an Indo-European language. Because of no surviving sample texts, it is impossible to ascertain whether it was a Greek dialect or even related to the Greek language at all. Its exact relationship remains unclear. Macedonian could also be related to Thracian and Phrygian languages to some extent. The Macedonian dialect (or language) appears to have been replaced by Attic Greek during the Hellenistic period. Late 20th century epigraphic discoveries in the Greek region of Macedonia, such as the Pella curse tablet, may suggest that ancient Macedonian could have been a variety of north-western ancient Greek or replaced by a Greek dialect. Phonology Differences from Proto-Indo-European Main article: Proto-Greek language Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics, ancient Greek words could end only in a vowel or /n s r/; final stops were lost, as in "γάλα," "milk." compared with "γάλακτος," "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: . PIE *s became /h/ at the beginning of a word (debuccalization): Latin sex, English six, ancient Greek "ἕξ" /héks/. . PIE *s was elided between vowels after an intermediate step of debuccalization: Sanskrit "janasas," Latin "generis" (where s > r by rhotacism), Greek "genesos" > "genehos" > ancient Greek "γένεος" (/géneos/), Attic "γένους" (/génoːs/) "of a kind." . PIE *y /j/ became /h/ (debuccalization) or /(d)z/ (fortition): Sanskrit "yas," ancient Greek ὅς /hós/ "who" (relative pronoun); Latin "iugum," English "yoke," ancient Greek "ζυγός" /zygós/. . PIE *w, which occurred in Mycenaean and some non-Attic dialects, was lost: early Doric "ϝέργον" /wérgon/, English "work," Attic Greek "ἔργον" /érgon/. . PIE and Mycenaean labiovelars changed to plain stops (labals, dentals, and velars) in the later Greek dialects: for instance, PIE *kʷ became /p/ or /t/ in Attic: Attic Greek "ποῦ /pôː/ "where?," Latin "quō"; Attic Greek "τίς" /tís/, Latin "quis," "who?." . PIE "voiced aspirated" stops *bʰ dʰ ǵʰ gʰ gʷʰ were devoiced and became the aspirated stops φ θ χ /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ in ancient Greek. Phonemic inventory Main article: Ancient Greek phonology The pronunciation of ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek. Ancient Greek had long and short vowels; many diphthongs; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops; and a pitch accent. In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ (iotacism). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives, and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent. Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in the 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. [chart] [ŋ] occurred as an allophone of /n/ that was used before velars and as an allophone of /ɡ/ before nasals. /r/ was probably voiceless when word-initial (written ῥ). /s/ was assimilated to [z] before voiced consonants. Vowels [chart] /oː/ raised to [uː], probably by the 4th century BC. Morphology Main article: Ancient Greek grammar Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages, is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative), three genders (ma..
    
16. Title: Wikiwand: Epaticcus
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Epaticcus;
    Note: Epaticcus or Epaticcu (d. c. AD 35) was a brother of Cunobelinus, king of the Catuvellauni, a tribe of Iron Age Britain. Coins bearing his name begin to appear in the northern lands of the neighboring Atrebates tribe and their capital, Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester), probably fell to him around AD 25. It is likely that Epaticcus was permitted to govern the area by his brother as part of the Catuvellaunian hegemony that was expanding across south eastern Britain at the time.
    
17. Title: See Darrell Wolcott, "Beli Mawr and Llyr Llediath in Welsh Pedigrees," http://www.ancientwalesstudies.org/id145.html -- for help in untangling these lines. (May 18, 2016, Anne Brannen, curator)
    Author: See Darrell Wolcott, "Beli Mawr and Llyr Llediath in Welsh Pedigrees," http://www.ancientwalesstudies.org/id145.html -- for help in untangling these lines. (May 18, 2016, Anne Brannen, curator)
    Publication: Name: https://www.geni.com/people/Coellyn-ap-Caradog/6000000034682194678;
    
18. Title: Wikiwand: Claudius
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Claudius;
    Note: Claudius (/ˈklɔːdiəs/ KLAW-dee-əs; Latin: "Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus"; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54) was a Roman emperor from AD 41 to 54. Born to Drusus and Antonia Minor at Lugdunum in Roman Gaul, where his father was stationed as a military legate, he was the first Roman emperor to be born outside Italy. Nonetheless, Claudius was an Italic of Sabine origins and a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Because he was afflicted with a limp and slight deafness due to sickness at a young age, his family ostracized him and excluded him from public office until his consulship, shared with his nephew Caligula in 37. Claudius's infirmity probably saved him from the fate of many other nobles during the purges of Tiberius's and Caligula's reigns; potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat. His survival led to his being declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last man of his family. Despite his lack of experience, Claudius proved to be an able and efficient administrator. He expanded the imperial bureaucracy to include freedmen, and helped to restore the empire's finances after the excess of Caligula's reign. He was also an ambitious builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign the Empire started its successful conquest of Britain. Having a personal interest in law, he presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position; this resulted in the deaths of many senators. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised this opinion. Many authors contend that he was murdered by his own wife. After his death in 54 (at the age of 63), his grand-nephew, step-son, and adopted son Nero succeeded him as emperor. His 13-year reign (slightly longer than Nero's) would not be surpassed by any successors until that of Domitian, who reigned for 15 years. He was a descendant of the Octavii Rufi (through Gaius Octavius), Julii Caesares (through Julia Minor and Julia Antonia), and the Claudii Nerones (through Nero Claudius Drusus). He was a step-grandson (through his father Drusus) and great-nephew (through his mother Antonia Minor) of Augustus. He was a nephew of Tiberius through his father, Tiberius's brother. Through his brother Germanicus, Claudius was an uncle of Caligula and a great uncle of Nero. Through his mother Antonia Minor he was a grandson of Mark Antony. Family and early life Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC at Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France). He had two older siblings, Germanicus and Livilla. His mother, Antonia, may have had two other children who died young. His maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, Augustus' sister, and he was therefore the great-great grandnephew of Gaius Julius Caesar. His paternal grandparents were Livia, Augustus' third wife, and Tiberius Claudius Nero. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his father Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give the appearance that Augustus was Claudius' paternal grandfather. In 9 BC, his father Drusus unexpectedly died on campaign in Germania, possibly from illness. Claudius was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When Claudius' disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off to his grandmother Livia for a number of years. Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a "former mule-driver" to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of will-power. However, by the time he reached his teenage years his symptoms apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarly interests. In AD 7, Livy was hired to tutor him in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter and the philosopher Athenodorus. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius' oratory. Expectations about his future began to increase. Public life His work as a budding historian damaged his prospects for advancement in public life. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, Claudius began work on a history of the Civil Wars that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian—then reigning as Augustus Caesar. In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and this may have convinced them that Claudius was not fit for public office. He could not be trusted to toe the existing party line. When he returned to the narrative later in life, Claudius skipped over the wars of the Second Triumvirate altogether. But the damage was done, and his family pushed him into the background. When the Arch of Pavia was erected to honor the Imperial clan in 8 AD, Claudius' name (now Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation to paterfamilias of Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge—past the deceased princes, Gaius and Lucius, and Germanicus' children. There is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and that he originally did not appear at all. When Augustus died in AD 14, Claudius—then aged 23—appealed to his uncle Tiberius to allow him to begin the "cursus honorum." Tiberius, the new Emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since the new Emperor was no more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life. Despite the disdain of the Imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus' death, the "equites," or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the Senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained. During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius' son, Drusus, Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the commander of the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus, was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility. After the death of Tiberius, the new emperor Caligula (the son of Claudius' brother Germanicus) recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37 in order to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus. Despite this, Caligula relentlessly tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before the Senate, and the like. According to Cassius Dio Claudius became very sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign, most likely due to stress. A possible surviving portrait of Claudius from this period may support this. Assassination of Caligula (AD 41) On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in a broad-based conspiracy involving the Praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea and several senators. There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot—particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew was murdered. However, after the deaths of Caligula's wife and daughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the Imperial family. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the German guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared him "princeps." A section of the guard may have planned in advance to seek out Claudius, perhaps with his approval. They reassured him that they were not one of the battalions looking for revenge. He was spirited away to the Praetorian camp and put under their protection. The Senate quickly met and began debating a change of government, but this eventually devolved into an argument over which of them would be the new princeps. When they heard of the Praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularly Josephus, claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by the Judaean King Herod Agrippa. However, an earlier version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role so it remains uncertain. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in and, in return, Claudius pardoned nearly all the assassins. As Emperor Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within the Julio-Claudian family. He adopted the name "Caesar" as a cognomen, as the name still carried great weight with the populace. In order to do so, he dropped the cognomen "Nero" which he had adopted as "paterfamilias" of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted out. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Claudius adopted the royal titulary "Tiberios Klaudios, Autokrator Heqaheqau Meryasetptah, Kanakht Djediakhshuemakhet" ("Tiberius Claudius, Emperor and ruler of rulers, beloved of Isis and Ptah, the strong bull of the stable moon on the horizon"). While Claudius had never been for..
    
19. Title: Caradog ap Bran, King of Siluria ("Geni database")
    Publication: Name: https://www.geni.com/people/Caradog-ap-Bran-King-of-Siluria/6000000003230348505;
    Note: Caradog ap Bran, King of Siluria French: Caradoc ap Baran, roi de Silurie Also Known As: "King of Siluria", "Caradog", "Caradoc ap Bran" Birthdate: circa 5 Birthplace: Trevan, Llanilid, Glamorganshire, Wales (United Kingdom) Death: circa 100 (86-104) Siluria, Wales (United Kingdom) Immediate Family: Son of Bran, King of Siluria and N.N. Husband of Eurgain of Britain Father of Coellyn ap Caradog Brother of Penarddun ferch Bran Occupation: roi de Galles Notes Caradoc, "Caractacus", King of Siluria was born at Trevan, Llanilid, now County Glamorganshire, England, was King of Siluria, (County Monmouthshire, England) where he died. His valiant services to his country have been told in connection with the attempted invasions of the island. The Bards record his wise saying: "Oppression persisted in brings on death." And Caradoc married Eurgain of Camulod, a move that would, in time, unite the two thrones to a united "Brittain". s:div gen anglaises Sources [S395] royal_lineage.ged, June 2006. [S399] jean-pierre_masson. Please see Darrell Wolcott:"Bartrum's Pedigrees of the welsh Tribal Patriarchs" -#17- Caradog Freichfras, http://www.ancientwalesstudies.org/id185.html. (Steven Ferry, March 14, 2017.) In some of the early Welsh Arthurian texts, and in some of the medieval Welsh genealogies, he is said to be the ancestor of King Arthur. See Cynan, Ancestor of Uther, Early Welsh Texts -====-=-===-=-=-===- Caratacus (Brythonic *Caratācos, Middle Welsh Caratawc; Welsh Caradog; Breton Karadeg; Greek Καράτακος; variants Latin Caractacus, Greek Καρτάκης) was a first-century British chieftain of the Catuvellauni tribe, who led the British resistance to the Roman conquest. Before the Roman invasion Caratacus is associated with the expansion of his tribe's territory. His apparent success led to Roman invasion, nominally in support of his defeated enemies. He resisted the Romans for almost a decade, mixing guerrilla warfare with set-piece battles, but was unsuccessful in the latter. After his final defeat he fled to the territory of Queen Cartimandua, who captured him and handed him over to the Romans. He was sentenced to death as a military prisoner, but made a speech before his execution that persuaded the Emperor Claudius to spare him. The legendary Welsh character Caradog ap Bran and the legendary British king Arvirargus may be based upon Caratacus. Caratacus's speech to Claudius has been a common subject in art. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caratacus
    Page: Potential expansion on this family line. Additional links in the source.
    
20. Title: Wikiquotes: Caratacus
    Publication: Name: https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Caratacus;
    Note: Quotes . "Si quanta nobilitas et fortuna mihi fuit, tanta rerum prosperarum moderatio fuisset, amicus potius in hanc urbem quam captus venissem, neque dedignatus esses claris maioribus ortum, plurimis gentibus imperitantem foedere in pacem accipere." . Had my lineage and rank been accompanied by only moderate success, I should have come to this city as friend rather than prisoner, and you would not have disdained to ally yourself peacefully with one so nobly born, the ruler of so many nations. . Tacitus "Annales," Bk. XII, ch. 37; translation from "The Annals of Imperial Rome," trans. Michael Grant, (Harmondsworth: Penguin, ([1956] 1971) p. 267. . Habui equos viros, arma opes: quid mirum si haec invitus amisi? Nam si vos omnibus imperitare vultis, sequitur ut omnes servitutem accipiant? . I had horses, arms, men, wealth. Are you surprised I am sorry to lose them? If you want to rule the world, does it follow that everyone else welcomes enslavement? . Tacitus "Annales," Bk. XII, ch. 37; translation from "The Annals of Imperial Rome," trans. Michael Grant, (Harmondsworth: Penguin, [1956] 1971) p. 267. . Ειτα ταυτα και τα τοιαυτα κεκτημένοι των σκηνιδίων ημων επιθυμειτε. . And can you, then, who have got such possessions and so many of them, covet our poor huts? . Cassius Dio "Roman History," Bk. LXI, ch. 33, sect. 3c; translation from John Creighton's "Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain" (Cambridge: CUP, 2000) p. 92. . Said after having seen Rome for the first time.
    
21. Title: "A Chronicle of England, B.C. 55-A.D. 1485, Part 1485," by James Edmund Doyle, Edmund Evans
    Author: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1864
    Publication: Name: https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=YcM_AAAAYAAJ&q=caratacus#v=onepage&q=caractacus&f=false;
    
22. Title: Wikiwand: Cassius Dio
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Cassius_Dio;
    Note: Cassius Dio or Dio Cassius (Greek: Δίων Κάσσιος) (/ˈkæʃəs ˈdaɪoʊ/; c. 155 – c. 235) was a Roman statesman and historian of Greek and Roman origin. He published 80 volumes of history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the subsequent founding of Rome (753 BC), the formation of the Republic (509 BC), and the creation of the Empire (31 BC), up until 229 AD. Written in ancient Greek over 22 years, Dio's work covers approximately 1,000 years of history. Many of his 80 books have survived intact, or as fragments, providing modern scholars with a detailed perspective on Roman history. Biography Lucius Cassius Dio was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator and member of the gens Cassia, who was born and raised at Nicaea in Bithynia. Byzantine tradition maintains that Dio's mother was the daughter or sister of the Greek orator and philosopher, Dio Chrysostom; however, this relationship has been disputed. Lucius is often identified as Dio's "praenomen," but a Macedonian inscription, published in 1970, reveals the abbreviation, "Cl.", presumably Claudius. Although Dio was a Roman citizen, he wrote in Greek. Dio always maintained a love for his hometown of Nicaea, calling it "his home," as opposed to his description of his villa in Italy ("my residence in Italy"). For the greater part of his life, Dio was a member of the public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna following the death of Septimius Severus; he became a suffect consul in approximately the year 205. Dio was also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia. Severus Alexander held Dio in the highest esteem and reappointed him to the position of consul, even though his caustic nature irritated the Praetorian Guards, who demanded his life. Following his second consulship, while in his later years, Dio returned to his native country, where he eventually died. Dio was either the grandfather or great-grandfather of Cassius Dio, consul in 291. "Roman History" Dio published a "Roman History} (Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἱστορία, "Historia Romana"), in 80 books, after twenty-two years of research and labor. The books cover a period of approximately 1,400 years, beginning with the tales from Roman mythology of the arrival of the legendary Aeneas in Italy (c. 1200 BC) and the founding of Rome by his descendant Romulus (753 BC); as well as the historic events of the republican and imperial eras through 229 AD. The work is one of only three written Roman sources that document the British revolt of AD 60–61 led by Boudica. Until the first century BC, Dio provides only a summary of events; after that period, his accounts become more detailed. From the time of Commodus (ruled AD 180–192), Dio is very circumspect in his conveyance of the events that he witnessed. The version of Dio's work that survives today is quite composite since his history does not survive in its entirety: The first 21 books have been partially reconstructed based on fragments from other works as well as the epitome of Zonaras who used Dio's "Roman History" as a main source. Scholarship on this part of Dio's work is scarce but the importance of the Early Republic and Regal period to Dio's overall work has recently been underlined. Books 22-35 are sparsely covered by fragments. The books that follow, Books 36 through 54, are nearly all complete; they cover the period from 65 BC to 12 BC, or from the eastern campaign of Pompey and the death of Mithridates to the death of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Book 55 contains a considerable gap, while Books 56 through 60 (which cover the period from AD 9 through 54) are complete and contain events from the defeat of Varus in Germany to the death of Claudius. Of the 20 subsequent books in the series, there remain only fragments and the meager abridgement of John Xiphilinus, a monk from the 11th century. The abridgment of Xiphilinus, as now extant, commences with Book 35 and continues to the end of Book 80: it is a very indifferent performance[citation needed] and was made by order of the emperor Michael VII Doukas. The last book covers the period from 222 to 229 (the first half of the reign of Alexander Severus). Dio's work has often been deprecated as unreliable and lacking any overall political aim. Recently, however, this Roman historian has received a thorough reevaluation and his complexity and sophisticated political and historical interpretations have been highlighted. The fragments of the first 36 books, as they have been collected, consist of four kinds: 1. "Fragmenta Valesiana": fragments that were dispersed throughout various writers, scholiasts, grammarians, and lexicographers, and were collected by Henri Valois. 2. "Fragmenta Peiresciana": large extracts, found in the section entitled "Of Virtues and Vices," contained in the collection, or portative library, compiled by order of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. The manuscript of this belonged to Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc. 3. The fragments of the first 34 books, preserved in the second section of the same work by Constantine, entitled “Of Embassies.” These are known under the name of "Fragmenta Ursiniana," as the manuscript in which they are contained was found in Sicily by Fulvio Orsini. 4. "Excerpta Vaticana," by Angelo Mai: Contains fragments of books 1 to 35 and 61 to 80. Additionally, fragments of an unknown continuator of Dio ("Anonymus post Dionem"), generally identified with the 6th-century historian Peter the Patrician, are included; these date from the time of Constantine. Other fragments from Dio that are primarily associated with the first 34 books were found by Mai in two Vatican MSS.; these contain a collection that was compiled by Maximus Planudes. The annals of Joannes Zonaras also contain numerous extracts from Dio. Literary style Dio attempted to emulate Thucydides in his writing style. Dio's style, where there appears to be no corruption of the text, is generally clear though full of Latinisms. Dio's writing was underpinned by a set of personal circumstances whereby he was able to observe significant events of the Empire in the first person, or had direct contact with the key figures who were involved.
    
23. Title: Wikiwand: Welsh language
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Welsh_language;
    Note: Welsh ("Cymraeg" [kəmˈrɑːɨɡ] or "y Gymraeg" [ə gəmˈrɑːɨɡ]) is a Brittonic language of the Celtic language family. It is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, and in Y Wladfa (the Welsh colony in Chubut Province, Argentina). Historically, it has also been known in English as "British," "Cambrian," "Cambric" and "Cymric." According to the United Kingdom Census 2011, 19 percent of residents in Wales aged three and over were able to speak Welsh. According to the 2001 Census, 21 per cent of the population aged 3+ were able to speak Welsh. This suggests that there was a decrease in the number of Welsh speakers in Wales from 2001 to 2011 – from about 582,000 to 562,000 respectively. The Annual Population Survey conducted by the Office for National Statistics for the year ending in March 2019 suggest that 896,900 Welsh residents (30 per cent) aged three or over in Wales were able to speak Welsh. The results for the most recent National Survey for Wales (2017-2018) suggest that 19 per cent of the population aged 16 and over were able to speak Welsh, with an additional 12 per cent noting that they had "some Welsh speaking ability." The Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 gave the Welsh language official status in Wales, making it the only language that is "de jure" official in any part of the United Kingdom, with English being "de facto" official. The Welsh language, along with English, is also a de jure official language of the National Assembly for Wales. History Main article: History of the Welsh language The language of the Welsh developed from the language of Britons. The emergence of Welsh was not instantaneous and clearly identifiable. Instead, the shift occurred over a long period of time, with some historians claiming that it had happened by as late as the 9th century, with a watershed moment being that proposed by linguist Kenneth H. Jackson, the Battle of Dyrham, a military battle between the West Saxons and the Britons in 577 AD, which split the South Western British from direct overland contact with the Welsh. Four periods are identified in the history of Welsh, with rather indistinct boundaries: Primitive Welsh, Old Welsh, Middle Welsh, and Modern Welsh. The period immediately following the language's emergence is sometimes referred to as Primitive Welsh, followed by the Old Welsh period – which is generally considered to stretch from the beginning of the 9th century to sometime during the 12th century. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, which in turn is divided into Early and Late Modern Welsh. The word "Welsh" is a descendant, via Old English "wealh," "wielisc," of the Proto-Germanic word "Walhaz," which was derived from the name of the Celtic people known to the Romans as Volcae and which came to refer to speakers of Celtic languages, and then indiscriminately to the people of the Western Roman Empire. In Old English the term went through semantic narrowing, coming to refer to either Britons in particular or, in some contexts, slaves. the plural form "Wēalas" evolved into the name for their territory, Wales. The modern names for various Romance-speaking people in Continental Europe (e.g. Wallonia, Wallachia, "Valais," Vlachs, and "Włochy," the Polish name for Italy) have a similar etymology.. The Welsh term for the language, "Cymraeg," descends from the Brythonic word "combrogi," meaning "compatriots" or "fellow countrymen." Origins See also: Celtic languages § Classification Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was probably spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, thus evolving into Welsh and the other Brittonic languages. It is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Linguist Kenneth H. Jackson has suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around AD 550, and labelled the period between then and about AD 800 "Primitive Welsh." This Primitive Welsh may have been spoken in both Wales and the Hen Ogledd ("Old North") – the Brittonic-speaking areas of what is now northern England and southern Scotland – and therefore may have been the ancestor of Cumbric as well as Welsh. Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the "Cynfeirdd," or "Early Poets" – generally is considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was supposedly composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material and language in which it was originally composed. This discretion stems from the fact that Cumbric was widely believed to have been the language used in Hen Ogledd. An 8th-century inscription in Tywyn shows the language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns. Janet Davies proposed that the origins of Welsh language were much less definite; in "The Welsh Language: A History," she proposes that Welsh may have been around even earlier than 600 AD. This is evidenced by the dropping of final syllables from Brittonic: "bardos," "poet" became "bardd," and "abona," "river" became "afon." Though both Davies and Jackson cite minor changes in syllable structure and sounds as evidence for the creation of Old Welsh, Davies suggests it may be more appropriate to refer to this derivative language as "Lingua Britannica" rather than characterizing it as a new language altogether. Primitive Welsh The argued dates for the period of "Primitive Welsh" are widely debated, with some historians' suggestions differing by hundreds of years. Old Welsh Main article: Old Welsh The next main period is Old Welsh ("Hen Gymraeg," 9th to 11th centuries); poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. As Germanic and Gaelic colonization of Britain proceeded, the Brittonic speakers in Wales were split off from those in northern England, speaking Cumbric, and those in the southwest, speaking what would become Cornish, and so the languages diverged. Both the works of Aneirin ("Canu Aneirin," c. 600) and the "Book of Taliesin" ("Canu Taliesin") were written during this era. Middle Welsh Main article: Middle Welsh Middle Welsh ("Cymraeg Canol") is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of nearly all surviving early manuscripts of the "Mabinogion," although the tales themselves are certainly much older. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts. Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible to a modern-day Welsh speaker. Modern Welsh Modern Welsh is subdivided into Early Modern Welsh and Late Modern Welsh. Early Modern Welsh ran from the 15th century through to the end of the 16th century, and the Late Modern Welsh period roughly dates from the 16th century onwards. Contemporary Welsh differs greatly from the Welsh of the 16th century, but they are similar enough for a fluent Welsh speaker to have little trouble understanding it. During the Modern Welsh period there has been a decline in the popularity of the Welsh language: the number of Welsh speakers declined to the point at which there was concern that the language would become extinct. Welsh government processes and legislation have worked to increase the proliferation of the Welsh language, e.g. through education. Welsh Bible The Bible translations into Welsh helped maintain the use of Welsh in daily life. The New Testament was translated by William Salesbury in 1567, and the complete Bible by William Morgan in 1588. Geographic distribution Wales Welsh has been spoken continuously in Wales throughout recorded history, but by 1911 it had become a minority language, spoken by 43.5 per cent of the population.[32] While this decline continued over the following decades, the language did not die out. By the start of the 21st century, numbers began to increase once more, at least partly as a result of the increase in Welsh-medium education. The 2004 Welsh Language Use Survey showed that 21.7 percent of the population of Wales spoke Welsh,[compared with 20.8 percent in the 2001 Census, and 18.5 percent in 1991 Census. The 2011 Census, however, showed a slight decline to 562,000, or 19 per cent of the population. The census also showed a "big drop" in the number of speakers in the Welsh-speaking heartlands, with the number dropping to under 50 percent in Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire for the first time. However, according to the Welsh Language Use Survey in 2013–15, 24 percent of people aged three and over were able to speak Welsh. The Annual Population Survey by the Office for National Statistics estimated that, for the year ending in March 2019, 896,900, or 29.8 percent of the population of Wales aged 3 and over, were able to speak the language, implying a possible increase in the prevalence of the Welsh language since the 2011 census. Similarly, the National Survey for Wales, conducted by Welsh Government, has also tended to have a higher percentage of Welsh speakers than the Census, with the most recent results for 2017-2018 suggesting that 19 percent of the population aged 16 and over were able to speak Welsh with an additional 12 percent noting that they had some Welsh-speaking ability. Historically, large numbers of Welsh people spoke only Welsh. Over the course of the 20th century this monolingual population "all but disappeared", but a small percentage remained at the time of the 1981 census. Most Welsh-speaking people in Wales also speak English (while in Chubut Province, Argentina, most speakers can speak Spanish – see Y Wladfa). Welsh sp..
    
24. Title: Wikiwand: Colchester
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Colchester;
    Note: Colchester /ˈkoʊltʃɛstər/ (About this soundlisten) is a historic market town and the largest settlement within the borough of Colchester in the county of Essex. Colchester was the first Roman-founded city in Britain, and Colchester lays claim to be regarded as Britain's oldest recorded town. It was for a time the capital of Roman Britain, and is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network. Situated on the River Colne, Colchester is 50 miles (80 km) northeast of London and is connected to the capital by the A12 road and its railway station which is on the Great Eastern Main Line. It is seen as a popular town for commuters, and is less than 30 miles (48 km) from London Stansted Airport and 20 miles (32 km) from the passenger ferry port of Harwich. Colchester is home to Colchester Castle and Colchester United Football Club. The demonym is Colcestrian. Name There are several theories about the origin of the name "Colchester." Some contend that is derived from the Latin words "Colonia" (referring to a type of Roman settlement with rights equivalent to those of Roman citizens, one of which was believed to have been founded in the vicinity of Colchester) and "Castra," meaning "fortifications" (referring to the town's walls, the oldest in Britain). The earliest forms of the name Colchester are "Colenceaster" and "Colneceastre" from the 10th century, with the modern spelling of "Colchester" being found in the 15th century. In this way of interpreting the name, the River Colne which runs through the town takes its name from "Colonia" as well. Cologne (German "Köln") also gained its name from a similar etymology (from its Roman name Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium). Other etymologists are confident that the Colne's name is of Celtic (pre-Roman) origin, sharing its origin with several other rivers Colne or Clun around Britain, and that Colchester is derived from "Colne" and "Castra." Ekwall went as far as to say "it has often been held that Colchester contains as first element [Latin] "colonia" ... this derivation is ruled out of court by the fact that Colne is the name of several old villages situated a good many miles from Colchester and on the Colne. The identification of Colonia with Colchester is doubtful." The popular association of the name with King Coel has no academic merit. History Main article: History of Colchester Prehistory The gravel hill upon which Colchester is built was formed in the Middle Pleistocene period, and was shaped into a terrace between the Anglian glaciation and the Ipswichian glaciation by an ancient precursor to the River Colne. From these deposits beneath the town have been found Palaeolithic flint tools, including at least six Acheulian handaxes. Further flint tools made by hunter gatherers living in the Colne Valley during the Mesolithic have been discovered, including a tranchet axe from Middlewick. In the 1980s an archaeological inventory showed that over 800 shards of pottery from the Neolithic, Bronze Age and early Iron Age have been found within Colchester, along with many examples of worked flint. This included a pit found at Culver Street containing a ritually placed Neolithic grooved ware pot, as well as find spots containing later Deverel-Rimbury bucket urns. Colchester is surrounded by Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments that pre-date the town, including a Neolithic henge at Tendring, large Bronze Age barrow cemeteries at Dedham and Langham, and a larger example at Brightlingsea consisting of a cluster of 22 barrows. Celtic origins Colchester is said to be the oldest recorded town in Britain on the grounds that it was mentioned by Pliny the Elder, who died in AD 79, although the Celtic name of the town, "Camulodunon" appears on coins minted by tribal chieftain Tasciovanus in the period 20–10 BC.[9] Before the Roman conquest of Britain it was already a centre of power for Cunobelin – known to Shakespeare as Cymbeline – king of the Catuvellauni (c. 5 BC – AD 40), who minted coins there. Its Celtic name, Camulodunon, variously represented as CA, CAM, CAMV, CAMVL and CAMVLODVNO on the coins of Cunobelinus, means 'the fortress of [the war god] Camulos'. During the 30s AD Camulodunon controlled a large swathe of Southern and Eastern Britain, with Cunobelin called "King of the Britons" by Roman writers. Camulodunon is sometimes popularly considered one of many possible sites around Britain for the legendary (perhaps mythical) Camelot of King Arthur, though the name Camelot (first mentioned by the 12th century French Arthurian storyteller Chrétien de Troyes) is most likely a corruption of "Camlann," a now unknown location first mentioned in the 10th century Welsh annalistic text Annales Cambriae, identified as the place where Arthur was slain in battle. Roman period Main article: Camulodunum Soon after the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43, a Roman legionary fortress was established, the first in Britain. Later, when the Roman frontier moved outwards and the twentieth legion had moved to the west (c.AD 49), Camulodunum became a colonia named in a second-century inscription as "Colonia Victricensis." This contained a large and elaborate Temple to the Divine Claudius, the largest classical-style temple in Britain, as well as at least seven other Romano-British temples. Colchester is home to two of the five Roman theatres found in Britain; the example at Gosbecks (site of the Iron Age royal farmstead) is the largest in Britain, able to seat 5,000. Camulodunum served as a provincial Roman capital of Britain, but was attacked and destroyed during Boudica's rebellion in AD 61. Sometime after the destruction, London became the capital of the province of Britannia. Colchester's town walls c. 3,000 yd. long were built c. 65–80 A.D. when the Roman town was rebuilt after the Boudicca rebellion. In 2004, Colchester Archaeological Trust discovered the remains of a Roman Circus (chariot race track) underneath the Garrison in Colchester, a unique find in Britain. The Roman town of "Camulodunum," officially known as "Colonia Victricensis," reached its peak in the Second and Third centuries AD. It may have reached a population of 30,000 in that period. In 2014 a hoard of jewelery, known as The Fenwick Hoard, was discovered in the town center. The director of Colchester Archaeological Trust, Philip Crummy, described the hoard as being of "national importance and one of the finest ever uncovered in Britain." Sub-Roman and Saxon period There is evidence of hasty re-organization of Colchester's defenses around 268–82 AD, followed later, during the fourth century, by the blocking of the Balkerne Gate. John Morris (1913 – June 1977) an English historian who specialized in the study of the institutions of the Roman Empire and the history of Sub-Roman Britain, suggested in his book "The Age of Arthur" (1973) that as the descendants of Romanized Britons looked back to a golden age of peace and prosperity under Rome, the name "Camelot" of Arthurian legend was probably a reference to Camulodunum, the capital of Britannia in Roman times. The archaeologist Sir Mortimer Wheeler was the first to propose that the lack of early Anglo-Saxon finds in a triangle between London, Colchester and St Albans could indicate a 'sub-Roman triangle' where British rule continued after the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons. Since then excavations have revealed some early Saxon occupation, including a fifth-century wooden hut built on the ruins of a Roman house in present-day Lion Walk. Archaeological excavations have shown that public buildings were abandoned, and is very doubtful whether Colchester survived as a settlement with any urban characteristics after the sixth century. The chronology of its revival is obscure. But the ninth-century "Historia Brittonum," attributed to Nennius, mentions the town, which it calls "Cair Colun," in a list of the thirty most important cities in Britain. Colchester was in the area assigned to the Danelaw in c.880, and remained in Danish hands until 917 when it was besieged and recaptured by the army of Edward the Elder. The tenth-century Saxons called the town "Colneceastre," which is directly equivalent to the "Cair Colun of 'Nennius'." The tower of Holy Trinity Church is late Saxon work. Medieval and Tudor periods Medieval Colchester's main landmark is Colchester Castle, which is an 11th-century Norman keep, and built on top of the vaults of the old Roman temple. There are notable medieval ruins in Colchester, including the surviving gateway of the Benedictine abbey of St John the Baptist (known locally as "St John's Abbey"), and the ruins of the Augustinian priory of St Botolph (known locally as "St Botolph's Priory"). Many of Colchester's parish churches date from this period. In 1189, Colchester was granted its first royal charter by King Richard I ("Richard the Lionheart"). The charter was granted at Dover with the king about to embark on one of his many journeys away from England. The borough celebrated the 800th anniversary of its charter in 1989. Colchester developed rapidly during the later 14th century as a center of the woolen cloth industry, and became famous in many parts of Europe for its russets (fabrics of a grey-brown color). This allowed the population to recover exceptionally rapidly from the effects of the Black Death, particularly by immigration into the town. Rovers Tye Farm, now a pub on Ipswich Road, has been documented as being established by 1353. By the 'New Constitutions' of 1372, a borough council was instituted; the two bailiffs who represented the borough to the king were now expected to consult sixteen ordinary councilors and eight auditors (later called aldermen). Even though Colchester's fortunes were more mixed during the 15th century, it was still a more important place by the 16th century than it had been in the 13th. In 1334 it would not have ranked among England's wealthiest fifty towns, to judge from the taxation levied that year ..
    
25. Title: Wikiwand: Middle Welsh
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Middle_Welsh;
    Note: Middle Welsh (Welsh: "Cymraeg Canol") is the label attached to the Welsh language of the 12th to 15th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This form of Welsh developed from Old Welsh. Literature and history Middle Welsh is the language of nearly all surviving early manuscripts of the "Mabinogion," although the tales themselves are certainly much older. It is also the language of most of the manuscripts of Welsh law. Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. Phonology The phonology of Middle Welsh is quite similar to that of modern Welsh, with only a few differences. The letter "u," which today represents /ɨ/ in North Western Welsh dialects and /i/ in South Welsh and North East Welsh dialects, represented the close central rounded vowel /ʉ/ in Middle Welsh. The diphthong "aw" is found in unstressed final syllables in Middle Welsh, while in Modern Welsh it has become o (e.g. Middle Welsh "marchawc" = Modern Welsh "marchog," "horseman"). Similarly, the Middle Welsh diphthongs "ei" and "eu" have become "ai" and "au" in final syllables, e. g. Middle Welsh "seith" = modern saith "seven," Middle Welsh "heul" = modern "haul," "sun." Orthography The orthography of Middle Welsh was not standardized, and there is great variation between manuscripts in how certain sounds are spelled. Some generalizations of differences between Middle Welsh spelling and Modern Welsh spelling can be made. For example, the possessive adjectives ei "his, her," "eu," "their" and the preposition "i," "to" are very commonly spelled "y" in Middle Welsh, and thus are spelled the same as the definite article "y" and the indirect relative particle "y." A phrase such as "y gath" therefore is ambiguous in Middle Welsh between the meaning "the cat" (spelled the same in Modern Welsh), the meaning "his cat" (modern "ei gath"), and the meaning "to a cat" (modern "i gath"). The voiced stop consonants /"d ɡ"/ are represented by the letters "t c" at the end of a word, e.g., "diffryt," "protection" (modern "diffryd"), "redec," "running" (modern "rhedeg"). The sound /k/ very often is spelled "k" before the vowels "e," "i," "y" (in Modern Welsh, it is always spelled "c"; e.g., Middle Welsh "keivyn" = modern "ceifn," "third cousin"). The sound /v/ usually is speled "u" or "v" (these are interchangeable as in Latin MSS), except at the end of a word, where it is spelled "f" (in Modern Welsh, it is always spelled "f"; e.g., Middle Welsh "auall" = modern "afall," "apple tree"). The sound /ð/ usually is spelled "d" (in Modern Welsh, it is spelled "dd," e.g., Middle Welsh "dyd" = modern "dydd," "day"). The sound /r̥/ is spelled "r" and thus is not distinguished from /r/ (in Modern Welsh, they are distinguished as "rh" and "r," respectively, e.g., Middle Welsh "redec," "running" vs. modern "rhedeg"). Grammar Present indicative active caru, "to love" bot, "to be" I caraf wyf Thou kery wyt He, she, it car yw, ys, yssyd We caran wyn You (pl.) kerych wych They carant wynt Morphology Middle Welsh is closer to the other medieval Celtic languages, e.g. Old Irish, in its morphology. For example, the endings "-wŷs," "-ws,"-es" and "-as" are used for 3rd person singular of the past tense in Middle Welsh as well as the form "-odd." In the same person and tense exists the form "kigleu," from the verb "clywed," "to hear (etc.)," which is very antiquated and corresponds to the Old Irish "cúala," from the verb "ro-cluinethar," "he/she heard." Middle Welsh also has more separate plural forms of adjectives that do not appear in modern Welsh, e.g., "cochion," "red"; "rouges." The plural termination "-awr" for nouns is very common in Middle Welsh, but has been replaced by "-au." Syntax As in modern written Welsh, the VSO word order ("Gwelodd y brenin gastell": "Saw the king a castle") is not used exclusively in Middle Welsh, but irregular and mixed orders also are used: "Y brenin a welodd gastell": ("[It was] the king that saw a castle"). The suggestion is that the mixed order places emphasis on the subject, and is often used in Welsh today to emphasize something. The difference between the two is that a negative particle ("ni/na") precedes the subject in the mixed order (thus "Ni brenin a welodd gastell" would mean "It was not the king that saw the castle," but precedes the verb in the irregular order (thus "Brenin ni welodd gastell" = "The king did not see a castle").
    
26. Title: Wikiwand: Arvirargus
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Arvirargus;
    Note: Arvirargus (or Arviragus) was a legendary, and possibly historical, British king of the 1st century AD. A shadowy historical Arviragus is known only from a cryptic reference in a satirical poem by Juvenal, in which a giant turbot presented to the Roman emperor Domitian (AD 81 – 96) is said to be an omen that "you will capture some king, or Arviragus will fall from his British chariot-pole." Geoffrey of Monmouth's "Historia Regum Britanniae" (1136) presents a legendary Arviragus who is contemporary with the emperor Claudius (41-54 AD). However, Geoffrey's work is highly romanticized and contains little trustworthy historical fact, rendering his account of Arvirargus suspect. According to Geoffrey, Arvirargus is a son of the former king Kimbelinus. He succeeds to the throne of Britain after his elder brother, Guiderius, dies fighting the invading Romans under Claudius. Arviragus puts on his brother's armor and leads the army of the Britons against the Romans. When he learns that Claudius and his commander, Hamo, have fled into the woods, Arvirargus follows him until they reach the coast. The Britons kill Hamo as he tries to flee onto a ship and the place is named Southampton after him. Claudius is able to reassemble his troops elsewhere and he besieges Portchester until it falls to his forces. Following Hamo's death, Arvirargus seeks refuge at Winchester, but Claudius follows him there with his army. The Britons break the siege and attack the Romans, but Claudius halts the attack and offers a treaty. In exchange for peace and tribute with Rome, Claudius offers Arvirargus his own daughter in marriage. They accept each other's terms and Arvirargus aids Claudius in subduing Orkney and other northern lands. In the following spring, Arvirargus weds Claudius' daughter, Genvissa, and names the city of Gloucester after her father. Following the wedding, Claudius leaves Britain in the control of Arvirargus. In the years following Claudius' departure, Arvirargus rebuilds the cities that have been ruined and becomes feared by his neighbors. This causes him to halt his tribute to Rome, forcing Claudius to send Vespasian with an army to Britain. As Vespasian prepares to land, such a large British force stands ready that he flees to another port, Totnes, where he sets up camp. Once a base is established, he marches to Exeter and besieges the city. Arvirargus meets him in battle there and the fight is stalemated. The following morning, Queen Genvissa mediates peace between the two foes. Vespasian returns to Rome and Arvirargus rules the country peacefully for some years. When he finally dies, he is buried in Gloucester, the city he built with Claudius. He is succeeded by his son, Marius. Geoffrey's legendary Arvirargus appears to correspond to some degree to the historical Caratacus, son of Cunobelinus, who, along with his brother Togodumnus, led the initial resistance to the Roman invasion of 43 AD, and went on to be a thorn in Rome's side for nearly a decade after Togodumnus's death. Welsh versions of Geoffrey's "Historia" call him Gweirydd and his brother Gwydr. Arvirargus is a character in William Shakespeare's play "Cymbeline." He and his brother Guiderius had been kidnapped in childhood by Belarius, a nobleman wrongly banished by Cymbeline, and brought up in secret in Wales, but are reunited with their father and sister Imogen in time for the Roman invasion. The records of Henry Herbert (Master of the Revels) show that a play called Arviragus, was performed at the Court of Charles I on December 26 and 27 1636.
    
27. Title: Richard Williams Morgan (1861). St. Paul in Britain; or, The origin of British as opposed to papal Christianity. pp. 161–. Retrieved 8 August 2012
    Author: Richard Williams Morgan (1861). St. Paul in Britain; or, The origin of British as opposed to papal Christianity. pp. 161–. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
    Publication: Name: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyllin#References;
    Note: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Cyllin was a legendary, and possibly historical British king of the 1st century AD, early Christian saint and the last pendragon of Great Britain. His existence is based on very limited evidence.[1] Richard Williams Morgan claimed that a reference to him as a son of Caratacus was found in the family records of Iestyn ab Gwrgant and used this as evidence of early entry of Christianity to Britain; Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners.[2] Reference to Cyllin is also given in Iolo Morganwg's "Third series" of forged Welsh Triads.[3] He is also discussed in the works of Rice Rees, Jane Williams, Sabine Baring-Gould and John Williams (Ab Ithel) as brother of Saint Eigen and father of King Coel.[4][5][6][7] He is also noted in a manuscript giving the genealogy of Taliesin from the collection of Thomas Hopkin of Coychurch along with one from the Havod Uchtryd collection where he is called Cynan, a name often associated with Conan Meriadoc.[8]
    Page: faamily relationship
    
28. Title: Wikiwand: Latin
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Latin;
    Note: Latin (Latin: "lingua latīna," IPA: [ˈlɪŋɡʷa laˈtiːna]) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets and ultimately from the Phoenician alphabet. Latin originally was spoken in the area around Rome, known as Latium. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language in Italy, and subsequently throughout the western Roman Empire. Latin has contributed many words to the English language. In particular, Latin (and Ancient Greek) roots are used in English descriptions of theology, the sciences, medicine, and law. By the late Roman Republic (75 BC), Old Latin had been standardized into Classical Latin. Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence and author Petronius. Late Latin is the written language from the 3rd century and the colloquial form Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan and Spanish in the 6th to 9th centuries. Medieval Latin was used as a literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance which used Renaissance Latin. Later, Early Modern Latin and New Latin evolved. Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars (including the Romance languages). Ecclesiastical Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Latin is a highly inflected language, with three distinct genders, up to seven noun cases, five declensions, four verb conjugations, six tenses, three persons, three moods, two voices, two or three aspects and two numbers. History Main article: History of Latin A number of historical phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, morphology, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from Late Antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476, and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. Old Latin Main article: Old Latin The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom to the later part of the Roman Republic period. It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence. The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet. The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature, which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools, which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Vulgar Latin Main articles: Vulgar Latin, Late Latin, and Romance languages Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus, which contain snippets of everyday speech, indicates that a spoken language, Vulgar Latin (termed "sermo vulgi," "the speech of the masses," by Cicero), existed concurrently with literate Classical Latin. The informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors and those found as graffiti. As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, romanized European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages. The decline of the Roman Empire meant a deterioration in educational standards that brought about Late Latin, a post-classical stage of the language seen in Christian writings of the time. It was more in line with everyday speech, not only because of a decline in education but also because of a desire to spread the word to the masses. Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilizing influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Moorish conquest of Spain in 711 cut off communications between the major Romance regions that the languages began to diverge seriously. The Vulgar Latin dialect that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it was largely cut off from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. One key marker of whether a given Romance feature was found in Vulgar Latin is to compare it with its parallel in Classical Latin. If it was not preferred in Classical Latin, then it most likely came from the undocumented contemporaneous Vulgar Latin. For example, the Romance for "horse" (Italian "cavallo," French "cheval," Spanish "caballo," Portuguese "cavalo" and Romanian "cal") came from Latin "caballus." However, Classical Latin used "equus." Therefore, "caballus" most likely was the spoken form. Vulgar Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. Medieval Latin Main article: Medieval Latin Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the postclassical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed. The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman empire that had supported its uniformity, medieval Latin lost its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin "sum" and "eram" are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use "fui" and "fueram" instead. Furthermore, the meanings of many words have been changed and new vocabularies have been introduced from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin Main article: Renaissance Latin The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language by its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists. Often led by members of the clergy, they were shocked by the accelerated dismantling of the vestiges of the classical world and the rapid loss of its literature. They strove to preserve what they could and restore Latin to what it had been and introduced the practice of producing revised editions of the literary works that remained by comparing surviving manuscripts. By no later than the 15th century they had replaced Medieval Latin with versions supported by the scholars of the rising universities, who attempted, by scholarship, to discover what the classical language had been.[19][15] New Latin Main article: New Latin During the Early Modern Age, Latin still was the most important language of culture in Europe. Therefore, until the end of the 17th century the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language) and later just native or other languages. Contemporary Latin Main articles: Contemporary Latin and Ecclesiastical Latin The largest organization that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church. Latin remains the language of the Roman Rite; the Tridentine Mass is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of the Holy See, the primary language of its public journal, the "Acta Apostolicae Sedis," and the working language of the Roman Rota. Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. In the Anglican Church, after the publication of the "Book of Common Prayer" of 1559, a Latin edition was published in 1560 for use in universities such as Oxford and the leading "public schools" (English private academies), where the liturgy was still permitted to be conducted in Latin. There have been several Latin translations since, including a Latin edition of the 1979 "USA Anglican Book of Common Prayer." Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name "Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages. For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code "CH," which stands for "Confœderatio Helvetica," the country's full Latin name. Canada's motto "A mari usq..
    
29. Title: Wikiwand: Verica
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Verica;
    Note: Verica (early 1st century AD) was a British client king of the Roman Empire in the years preceding the Claudian invasion of 43 AD. From his coinage, he appears to have been king of the, probably Belgic, Atrebates tribe and a son of Commius. He succeeded his elder brother Eppillus as king in about 15 AD, reigning at Calleva Atrebatum, today called Silchester. He was recognised as rex by Rome and appears to have had friendly trade and diplomatic links with the empire. His territory was pressed from the east by the Catuvellauni, led by Epaticcus, brother of Cunobelinus, who conquered Calleva in about 25 AD. After Epaticcus's death ca. 35 AD Verica regained some territory, but Cunobelinus's son Caratacus took over and conquered the entire kingdom some time after 40 AD. Dio Cassius records that "Bericus" (almost certainly Verica) was expelled from Britain around this time during a revolt. Suetonius refers to demands by the Britons that Rome return "certain deserters." As "rex," Verica was nominally an ally of Rome, so his exile gave Claudius an excuse to begin his invasion. Verica's relationship with Rome has been used to argue for the site of the Roman invasion of Britain as being along the south coast to assist him, rather than being at the traditional spot at Richborough in Kent. After the invasion, Verica may have been restored as king, but this is not attested in the historical or archaeological record. In any case a new ruler for the region, Cogidubnus, soon appeared. Cogidubnus may have been an heir of Verica who by this time would have been very elderly indeed.
    
30. Title: Caradoc (Caractacus) King of Siluria
    Author: Caradoc (Caractacus) King of Siluria
    Publication: Name: https://homepages.rpi.edu/~holmes/Hobbies/Genealogy2/ps10/ps10_473.htm;
    Note: King of Siluria (now Monmouthshire, etc.), where he died. He was born at Trevan, Llanilid, in Glamorganshire. His valiant services to his country have been told in connection with the attempted invasions of the island. The Bards record his wise saying: "Oppression persisted in brings on death." Caradoc (Caractacus) was King of Siluria (now Monmouthshire, etc.), where he died. He was born at Trevan, Llanilid, in Glamorganshire. His valiant services to his country have been told in connection with the attempted invasions of the island. The Bards record his wise saying: "Oppression persisted in brings on death." He had three sons and two daughters as follows: o 1. Cyllin (Cyllinus). See below. o 2. Lleyn (Linus) the Martyr. o 3. Cynon o 4. Eurgain o 5. Gladys (Claudia), was adopted by Emperor Claudius and became Claudius Britannica. In her 17th year she married Rufus Pudens., a Roman Senator. She died in 97 A.D. She and her two sons and two daughters were instructed by St. Paul in the Christian faith. Around 100 A.D. all the children suffered martyrdom in Rome under Nero, who at age 16 succeeded Claudius as Emperor on September 28, 53 A.D.
    Page: family relationship
    
31. Title: Darrell Wolcott: Rethinking the Gwent Pedigrees; http://www.ancientwalesstudies.org/id24.html. (Steven Ferry, February 20, 2020.)
    Author: Darrell Wolcott: Rethinking the Gwent Pedigrees; http://www.ancientwalesstudies.org/id24.html. (Steven Ferry, February 20, 2020.)
    Publication: Name: https://www.geni.com/people/Coellyn-ap-Caradog/6000000034682194678;
    Note: Coellyn ap Caradog French: Coellyn De Bretagne, Roi de Silurie Also Known As: "Cyllin ap Caradog" Birthdate: circa 35 Death: Immediate Family: Son of Caradog ap Bran, King of Siluria and Eurgain of Britain Father of Owain ap Cyllin Managed by: Private User Last Updated: April 26, 2022 View Complete Profile view all Immediate Family Owain ap Cyllin son Caradog ap Bran, King of Siluria father Eurgain of Britain mother About Coellyn ap Caradog
    Page: family relationship
    
32. Title: Jane Williams (18 November 2010). A History of Wales: Derived from Authentic Sources. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–. ISBN 978-1-108-02085-5. Retrieved 10 August 2012
    Author: Jane Williams (18 November 2010). A History of Wales: Derived from Authentic Sources. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–. ISBN 978-1-108-02085-5. Retrieved 10 August 2012
    Publication: Name: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyllin#References;
    Note: Cyllin was a legendary, and possibly historical British king of the 1st century AD, early Christian saint and the last pendragon of Great Britain. His existence is based on very limited evidence.[1] Richard Williams Morgan claimed that a reference to him as a son of Caratacus was found in the family records of Iestyn ab Gwrgant and used this as evidence of early entry of Christianity to Britain; Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners.[2] Reference to Cyllin is also given in Iolo Morganwg's "Third series" of forged Welsh Triads.[3] He is also discussed in the works of Rice Rees, Jane Williams, Sabine Baring-Gould and John Williams (Ab Ithel) as brother of Saint Eigen and father of King Coel.[4][5][6][7] He is also noted in a manuscript giving the genealogy of Taliesin from the collection of Thomas Hopkin of Coychurch along with one from the Havod Uchtryd collection where he is called Cynan, a name often associated with Conan Meriadoc.[8]
    Page: family relationship
    
33. Title: S. Baring-Gould; John Fisher (30 June 2005). The Lives of the British Saints: The Saints of Wales, Cornwall and Irish Saints. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 218–. ISBN 978-0-7661-8765-8. Retrieved 10 August 2012
    Author: S. Baring-Gould; John Fisher (30 June 2005). The Lives of the British Saints: The Saints of Wales, Cornwall and Irish Saints. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 218–. ISBN 978-0-7661-8765-8. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
    Publication: Name: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyllin#References;
    Note: Cyllin was a legendary, and possibly historical British king of the 1st century AD, early Christian saint and the last pendragon of Great Britain. His existence is based on very limited evidence.[1] Richard Williams Morgan claimed that a reference to him as a son of Caratacus was found in the family records of Iestyn ab Gwrgant and used this as evidence of early entry of Christianity to Britain; Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners.[2] Reference to Cyllin is also given in Iolo Morganwg's "Third series" of forged Welsh Triads.[3] He is also discussed in the works of Rice Rees, Jane Williams, Sabine Baring-Gould and John Williams (Ab Ithel) as brother of Saint Eigen and father of King Coel.[4][5][6][7] He is also noted in a manuscript giving the genealogy of Taliesin from the collection of Thomas Hopkin of Coychurch along with one from the Havod Uchtryd collection where he is called Cynan, a name often associated with Conan Meriadoc.[8
    Page: family relationship
    
34. Title: Wikiwand: Caratacus
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Caratacus;
    Note: Caratacus (Brythonic "Caratācos," Middle Welsh "Caratawc"; Welsh "Caradog"; Breton "Karadeg"; Greek "Καράτακος"; variants Latin "Caractacus," Greek "Καρτάκης)" was a 1st-century AD British chieftain of the Catuvellauni tribe, who led the British resistance to the Roman conquest. Before the Roman invasion Caratacus is associated with the expansion of his tribe's territory. His apparent success led to Roman invasion, nominally in support of his defeated enemies. He resisted the Romans for almost a decade, mixing guerrilla warfare with set-piece battles, but was unsuccessful in the latter. After his final defeat he fled to the territory of Queen Cartimandua, who captured him and handed him over to the Romans. He was sentenced to death as a military prisoner, but made a speech before his execution that persuaded the Emperor Claudius to spare him. The legendary Welsh character Caradog ap Bran and the legendary British king Arvirargus may be based upon Caratacus. Caratacus's speech to Claudius has been a common subject in art. Name Caratacus's name appears as both "Caratacus" and "Caractacus" in manuscripts of Tacitus, and as "Καράτακος" and "Καρτάκης" in manuscripts of Dio. Older reference works tend to favour the spelling "Caractacus," but modern scholars agree, based on historical linguistics and source criticism, that the original Common Brittonic form was "Karatākos," pronounced [karaˈtaːkos], cognate with Welsh "Caradog," Breton "Karadeg," and Irish "Carthach," meaning "loving, beloved, dear; friend." History Claudian invasion Caratacus is named by Dio Cassius as a son of the Catuvellaunian king Cunobelinus. Based on coin distribution Caratacus appears to have been the protégé of his uncle Epaticcus, who expanded Catuvellaunian power westwards most likely from his palace in Verulam the heartland of the Catuvellauni into the territory of the Atrebates. After Epaticcus died in about AD 35, the Atrebates, under Verica, regained some of their territory, but it appears Caratacus completed the conquest, as Dio tells us Verica was ousted, fled to Rome and appealed to the emperor Claudius for help. This was the excuse used by Claudius to launch his invasion of Britain in the summer of 43. The invasion targeted Caratacus's stronghold of Camulodunon (modern Colchester), previously the seat of his father Cunobelinus. Cunobelinus had died some time before the invasion. Caratacus and his brother Togodumnus led the initial defense of the country against Aulus Plautius's four legions, thought to have been around 40,000 men, primarily using guerrilla tactics. They lost much of the southeast after being defeated in two crucial battles, the Battle of the River Medway and River Thames. Togodumnus was killed (although John Hind argues that Dio was mistaken in reporting Togodumnus's death, that he was defeated but survived, and was later appointed by the Romans as a friendly king over a number of territories, becoming the loyal king referred to by Tacitus as Cogidubnus or Togidubnus) and the Catuvellauni's territories were conquered. Their stronghold of Camulodunon was converted into the first Roman colonia in Britain, Colonia Victricensis. Resistance to Rome We next hear of Caratacus in Tacitus's "Annals," leading the Silures and Ordovices of Wales against Plautius's successor as governor, Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Scapula managed to defeat Caratacus in a set-piece battle somewhere in Ordovician territory, capturing Caratacus's wife and daughter and receiving the surrender of his brothers. Caratacus himself escaped, and fled north to the lands of the Brigantes (modern Yorkshire) where the Brigantian queen, Cartimandua, handed him over to the Romans in chains. This was one of the factors that led to two Brigantian revolts against Cartimandua and her Roman allies, once later in the 50s and once in 69, led by Venutius, who had once been Cartimandua's husband. With the capture of Caratacus, much of southern Britain from the Humber to the Severn was pacified and garrisoned throughout the 50s.] Legends place Caratacus' last stand at either Caer Caradoc near Church Stretton or British Camp in the Malvern Hills, but the description of Tacitus makes either unlikely: "[Caratacus] resorted to the ultimate hazard, adopting a place for battle so that entry, exit, everything would be unfavourable to us and for the better to his own men, with steep mountains all around, and, wherever a gentle access was possible, he strewed rocks in front in the manner of a rampart. And in front too there flowed a stream with an unsure ford, and companies of armed men had taken up position along the defences." Although the Severn is visible from British Camp, it is nowhere near it, so this battle must have taken place elsewhere. A number of locations have been suggested, including a site near Brampton Bryan. Bari Jones, in Archaeology Today in 1998, identified Blodwel Rocks at Llanymynech in Powys as representing a close fit with Tacitus's account. Captive in Rome After his capture, Caratacus was sent to Rome as a war prize, presumably to be killed after a triumphal parade. Although a captive, he was allowed to speak to the Roman senate. Tacitus records a version of his speech in which he says that his stubborn resistance made Rome's glory in defeating him all the greater: If the degree of my nobility and fortune had been matched by moderation in success, I would have come to this City as a friend rather than a captive, nor would you have disdained to receive with a treaty of peace one sprung from brilliant ancestors and commanding a great many nations. But my present lot, disfiguring as it is for me, is magnificent for you. I had horses, men, arms, and wealth: what wonder if I was unwilling to lose them? If you wish to command everyone, does it really follow that everyone should accept your slavery? If I were now being handed over as one who had surrendered immediately, neither my fortune nor your glory would have achieved brilliance. It is also true that in my case any reprisal will be followed by oblivion. On the other hand, if you preserve me safe and sound, I shall be an eternal example of your clemency." He made such an impression that he was pardoned and allowed to live in peace in Rome. After his liberation, according to Dio Cassius, Caratacus was so impressed by the city of Rome that he said "And can you, then, who have got such possessions and so many of them, still covet our poor huts?" Legend Medieval Welsh traditions Caratacus' memory may have been preserved in medieval Welsh tradition. A genealogy in the Welsh Harleian MS 3859 (c. 1100) includes the generations "Caratauc map Cinbelin map Teuhant," corresponding, via established processes of language change, to "Caratacus, son of Cunobelinus, son of Tasciovanus," preserving the names of the three historical figures in correct relationship. Caratacus does not appear in Geoffrey of Monmouth's "History of the Kings of Britain" (1136), although he appears to correspond to Arviragus, the younger son of Kymbelinus, who continues to resist the Roman invasion after the death of his older brother Guiderius. In Welsh versions his name is Gweirydd, son of Cynfelyn, and his brother is called Gwydyr; the name Arviragus is taken from a poem by Juvenal. Caradog, son of Bran, who appears in medieval Welsh literature, has also been identified with Caratacus, although nothing in the medieval legend corresponds except his name. He appears in the Mabinogion as a son of Bran the Blessed, who is left in charge of Britain while his father makes war in Ireland, but is overthrown by Caswallawn (the historical Cassivellaunus, who lived a century earlier than Caratacus). The Welsh Triads agree that he was Bran's son, and name two sons, Cawrdaf and Eudaf. Modern traditions Caradog only began to be identified with Caratacus after the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus, and new material appeared based on this identification. An 18th-century tradition, popularised by the Welsh antiquarian and forger Iolo Morganwg, credits Caradog, on his return from imprisonment in Rome, with the introduction of Christianity to Britain. Iolo also makes the legendary king Coel Hen a son of Caradog's son Saint Cyllin. Richard Williams Morgan claimed that a reference to Cyllin as a son of Caratacus was found in the family records of Iestyn ab Gwrgant and used this as evidence of the early entry of Christianity to Britain: "Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners." Another tradition, which has remained popular among British Israelites and others, makes Caratacus already a Christian before he came to Rome, Christianity having been brought to Britain by either Joseph of Arimathea or St. Paul, and identifies a number of early Christians as his relatives. One is Pomponia Graecina, wife of Aulus Plautius, the conqueror of Britain, who as Tacitus relates, was accused of following a "foreign superstition," which the tradition considers to be Christianity. Tacitus describes her as the "wife of the Plautius who returned from Britain with an ovation," which led John Lingard (1771–1851) to conclude, in his "History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church," that she was British; however, this conclusion is a misinterpretation of what Tacitus wrote. An ovation was a military parade in honor of a victorious general, so the person who "returned from Britain with an ovation" is clearly Plautius, not Pomponia. This has not prevented the error being repeated and disseminated widely. Another is Claudia Rufina, a historical British woman known to the poet Martial. Martial describes..
    
35. Title: Darrell Wolcott: Bartrum's "Pedigrees of the Welsh Tribal Patriarchs" #17 Caradog Freichfras; http://www.ancientwalesstudies.org/id185.html. (Steven Ferry, September 22, 2019.)
    Author: Darrell Wolcott: Bartrum's "Pedigrees of the Welsh Tribal Patriarchs" #17 Caradog Freichfras; http://www.ancientwalesstudies.org/id185.html. (Steven Ferry, September 22, 2019.)
    Publication: Name: https://www.geni.com/people/Coellyn-ap-Caradog/6000000034682194678;
    
36. Title: Wikiwand: Welsh mythology
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Welsh_mythology;
    Note: Welsh mythology consists of both folk traditions developed in Wales, and traditions developed by the Celtic Britons elsewhere before the end of the first millennium. As in most of the predominantly oral societies of prehistoric Britain, Welsh mythology and history was recorded orally by specialists such as druids (Welsh: "derwyddon"). This oral record has been lost or altered as a result of outside contact and invasion over the years. Much of this altered mythology and history are preserved in medieval Welsh manuscripts, which include the "Red Book of Hergest," the "White Book of Rhydderch," the "Book of Aneirin" and the "Book of Taliesin." Other works connected to Welsh mythology include the ninth-century Latin historical compilation "Historia Brittonum" ("History of the Britons") and Geoffrey of Monmouth's twelfth-century Latin chronicle "Historia Regum Britanniae" ("History of the Kings of Britain"), as well as later folklore, such as the materials collected in The Welsh Fairy Book by William Jenkyn Thomas (1908). Legends The Four Branches of the "Mabinogi" Main article: The Four Branches of the Mabinogi Four of the mythological stories contained in the "Mabinogion" collectively are known as The Four Branches of the "Mabinogi." They concentrate largely on the exploits of various British deities who have been Christianised into kings and heroes. The only character who appears in every branch is Pryderi fab Pwyll, the king of Dyfed, who is born in the first Branch, is killed in the fourth, and is probably a reflex of the Celtic god Maponos. The only other recurring characters are Pryderi's mother Rhiannon, associated with the peaceful British prince Manawydan, who later becomes her second husband. Manawyadan and his siblings Brân the Blessed (Welsh: "Bendigeidfran" or "Brân Fendigaidd," "Blessed Crow"), Branwen and Efnysien are the key players of the second branch, while the fourth branch concerns itself with the exploits of the family of Dôn, which includes the wizard Gwydion, his nephew, Lleu Llaw Gyffes, and his sister, Arianrhod. Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed The first branch tells of how Pwyll, the prince of Dyfed, exchanges places for a year with Arawn, the ruler of Annwn (the underworld), defeats Arawn's enemy Hafgan, and on his return encounters Rhiannon, a beautiful maiden whose horse cannot be caught up with. He manages to win her hand at the expense of Gwawl, to whom she is betrothed, and she bears him a son, but the child disappears soon after his birth. Rhiannon is accused of killing him and forced to carry guests on her back as punishment. The child has been taken by a monster, and is rescued by Teyrnon and his wife, who bring him up as their own, calling him Gwri of the Golden hair, until his resemblance to Pwyll becomes apparent. They return him to his real parents, Rhiannon is released from her punishment, and the boy is renamed Pryderi. "Branwen ferch Llŷr" In the second branch Branwen, sister of Brân the Blessed, king of Britain, is given in marriage to Matholwch, king of Ireland. Branwen's half-brother Efnysien insults Matholwch by mutilating his horses, and in compensation Brân gives Matholwch new horses and treasure, including a magical cauldron that can restore the dead to life. Matholwch and Branwen have a son, Gwern, but Matholwch proceeds to mistreat Branwen, beating her and making her a drudge. Branwen trains a starling to take a message to Bran, who goes to war against Matholwch. His army crosses the Irish Sea in ships, but Brân is so huge that he wades across. The Irish offer to make peace, and build a house big enough to entertain Bran, but inside they hang a hundred bags, telling Efnysien they contain flour, when in fact they conceal armed warriors. Efnysien kills the warriors by squeezing the bags. Later, at the feast, Efnysien throws Gwern on the fire and fighting breaks out. Seeing that the Irish are using the cauldron to revive their dead, Efnysien hides among the corpses and destroys the cauldron, although the effort costs him his life. Only seven men, all Britons, survive the battle, including Pryderi, Manawyddan and Bran, who is mortally wounded by a poisoned spear. Brân asks his companions to cut off his head and take it back to Britain. Branwen dies of grief on returning home. Five pregnant women survive to repopulate Ireland. "Manawydan fab Llŷr" Pryderi and Manawydan return to Dyfed, where Pryderi marries Cigfa and Manawydan marries Rhiannon. However, a mist descends on the land, leaving it empty and desolate. The four support themselves by hunting at first, then move to England, where they make a living by making, successively, saddles, shields and shoes. Each time their products are of such quality that local craftsmen cannot compete, and drive them from town to town. Eventually they return to Dyfed and become hunters again. A white boar leads them to a mysterious castle. Against Manawydan's advice, Pryderi goes inside, but does not return. Rhiannon goes to investigate and finds him clinging to a bowl, unable to speak. The same fate befalls her, and the castle disappears. Manawydan and Cigfa return to England as shoemakers, but once again the locals drive them out and they return to Dyfed. They sow three fields of wheat, but the first field is destroyed before it can be harvested. The next night the second field is destroyed. Manawydan keeps watch over the third field, and when he sees it destroyed by mice he catches their leader and decides to hang it. A scholar, a priest and a bishop in turn offer him gifts if he will spare the mouse, but he refuses. When asked what he wants in return for the mouse's life, he demands the release of Pryderi and Rhiannon, and the lifting of the enchantment over Dyfed. The bishop agrees, because the mouse is in fact his wife. He has been waging magical war against Dyfed because he is a friend of Gwawl, whom Pwyll, Pryderi's father, humiliated. Math fab Mathonwy While Pryderi rules Dyfed, in the south of Wales, Gwynedd in the north of Wales is ruled by Math, son of Mathonwy. His feet must be held by a virgin except while he is at war. Math's nephew, Gilfaethwy, is in love with Goewin, his current footholder, and Gilfaethwy's brother Gwydion tricks Math into going to war against Pryderi so Gilfaethwy can have access to her. Gwydion kills Pryderi in single combat, and Gilfaethwy rapes Goewin. Math marries Goewin to save her from disgrace, and banishes Gwydion and Gilfaethwy, transforming them into a breeding pair of deer, then pigs, then wolves. After three years they are restored to human form and return. Math needs a new footholder, and Gwydion suggests his sister, Arianrhod, but when Math magically tests her virginity she gives birth to two sons. One, Dylan, immediately takes to the sea. The other child is raised by Gwydion, but Arianrhod tells him he will never have a name or arms unless she gives them to him, and refuses to do so. Gwydion tricks her into naming him Lleu Llaw Gyffes ("Bright, of deft hand"), and giving him arms. She then tells him he will never have a wife of any race living on Earth, so Gwydion and Math make him a wife from flowers, called Blodeuwedd (possibly "Flower face", though other etymologies have been suggested). Blodeuwedd falls in love with a hunter, Gronw Pebr, and they plot to kill Lleu. Blodeuwedd tricks Lleu into revealing the means by which he can be killed, but when Gronw attempts to do the deed Lleu escapes, transformed into an eagle. Gwydion finds Lleu and transforms him back into human form, and turns Blodeuwedd into an owl, renaming her Blodeuwedd and cursing her. Gronw offers to compensate Lleu, but Lleu insists on returning the blow that was struck against him. Gronw pleads to be allowed to hide behind a rock when he attempts to kill him. Lleu agrees. He kills Gronw with his spear, which is thrown so hard it pierces him through the stone he is hiding behind. Cad Goddeu A large tradition seems to have once surrounded the Battle of the Trees, a mythological conflict fought between the sons of Dôn and the forces of Annwn, the Welsh Otherworld, and seemingly connected to the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi. Amaethon, one of the sons of Don, steals a white roebuck and a whelp from Arawn, king of the otherworld, leading to a great battle. Gwydion fights alongside his brother and, assisted by Lleu, enchants the "elementary trees and sedges" to rise up as warriors against Arawn's forces. The alder leads the attack, while the aspen falls in battle, and heaven and earth tremble before the oak, a "valiant door keeper against the enemy." The bluebells combine and cause a "consternation" but the hero is the holly, tinted with green. A warrior fighting alongside Arawn cannot be vanquished unless his enemies can guess his name. Gwydion guesses the warrior's name, identifying him from the sprigs of alder on his shield, and sings two englyns: "Sure-hoofed is my steed impelled by the spur; The high sprigs of alder are on thy shield" Native tales The Dream of Macsen Wledig See also: Magnus Maximus This account is so different from Geoffrey of Monmouth's account of Maximian (as Geoffrey calls him) in "Historia regum Britanniae" that scholars agree that the Dream cannot be based purely on Geoffrey's version. The Dream's account also seems to accord better with details in the Triads, so it perhaps reflects an earlier tradition. Macsen Wledig, the Emperor of Rome, dreams one night of a lovely maiden in a wonderful, far-off land. Awakening, he sends his men all over the earth in search of her. With much difficulty they find her in a rich castle in Britain, daughter of a chieftain based at Segontium (Caernarfon), and lead the Emperor to her. Everything he finds is exactly as in his dream. The maiden, whose name is Helen or Elen, accepts and loves him. Because Elen is found a virgin, Macsen gives her father sovereignty over the island of Britain and orders three castles built for his bride. In Macsen's absence..
    
37. Title: Wikiwand: British Iron Age
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/British_Iron_Age;
    Note: The British Iron Age is a conventional name used in the archaeology of Great Britain, referring to the prehistoric and protohistoric phases of the Iron Age culture of the main island and the smaller islands, typically excluding prehistoric Ireland, which had an independent Iron Age culture of its own. The parallel phase of Irish archaeology is termed the Irish Iron Age. The Iron Age is not an archaeological horizon of common artifacts, but is rather a locally diverse cultural phase. The British Iron Age lasted in theory from the first significant use of iron for tools and weapons in Britain to the Romanization of the southern half of the island. The Romanized culture is termed Roman Britain and is considered to supplant the British Iron Age. The Irish Iron Age was ended by the rise of Christianity. The tribes living in Britain during this time are often popularly considered to be part of a broadly Celtic culture, but in recent years this has been disputed. At a minimum, "Celtic" is a linguistic term without an implication of a lasting cultural unity connecting Gaul with the British Isles throughout the Iron Age. The Brythonic languages spoken in Britain at this time, as well as others including the Goidelic and Gaulish languages of neighboring Ireland and Gaul respectively, certainly belong to the group known as Celtic languages. However it cannot be assumed that particular cultural features found in one Celtic-speaking culture can be extrapolated to the others. Periodization At present over 100 large-scale excavations of Iron Age sites have taken place, dating from the 8th century BC to the 1st century AD, and overlapping into the Bronze Age in the 8th century BC. Hundreds of radiocarbon dates have been acquired and have been calibrated on four different curves, the most precise being based on tree ring sequences. The following scheme summarizes a comparative chart presented in a 2005 book by Barry Cunliffe, but British artefacts were much later in adopting Continental styles such as the La Tène style of Celtic art: Earliest Iron Age 800–600 BC Parallel to Hallstatt C on the continent Early Iron Age 600–400 BC Hallstat D and half of La Tène I Middle Iron Age 400–100 BC The rest of La Tène I, all of II and half of III Late Iron Age 100–50 BC The rest of La Tène III Latest Iron Age 50 BC – AD 100 The end of the Iron Age extends into the very early Roman Empire under the theory that Romanization required some time to take effect. In parts of Britain that were not Romanized, such as Scotland, the period is extended a little longer, say to the 5th century. The geographer closest to AD 100 is perhaps Ptolemy. Pliny and Strabo are a bit older (and therefore a bit more contemporary), but Ptolemy gives the most detail (and the least theory). Archaeological evidence Attempts to understand the human behavior of the period have traditionally focused on the geographic position of the islands and their landscape, along with the channels of influence coming from continental Europe. During the later Bronze Age there are indications of new ideas influencing land use and settlement. Extensive field systems, now called Celtic fields, were being set out and settlements were becoming more permanent and focused on better exploitation of the land. The central organisation to undertake this had been present since the Neolithic period but it was now targeted at economic and social goals, such as taming the landscape rather than the building of large ceremonial structures like Stonehenge. Long ditches, some many miles in length, were dug with enclosures placed at their ends. These are thought to indicate territorial borders and a desire to increase control over wide areas. By the 8th century BC, there is increasing evidence of Great Britain becoming closely tied to continental Europe, especially in Britain's South and East. New weapon types appeared with clear parallels to those on the continent such as the Carp's tongue sword, complex examples of which are found all over Atlantic Europe. Phoenician traders probably began visiting Great Britain in search of minerals around this time, bringing with them goods from the Mediterranean. At the same time, Northern European artefact types reached Eastern Great Britain in large quantities from across the North Sea. Defensive structures dating from this time are often impressive, for example the brochs of Northern Scotland and the hill forts that dotted the rest of the islands. Some of the most well-known hill forts include Maiden Castle, Dorset, Cadbury Castle, Somerset and Danebury, Hampshire. Hill forts first appeared in Wessex in the Late Bronze Age, but only become common in the period between 550 and 400 BC. The earliest were of a simple univallate form, and often connected with earlier enclosures attached to the long ditch systems. Few hill forts have been substantially excavated in the modern era, Danebury being a notable exception, with 49% of its total surface area studied. However, it appears that these "forts" were also used for domestic purposes, with examples of food storage, industry and occupation being found within their earthworks. On the other hand, they may have been only occupied intermittently as it is difficult to reconcile permanently occupied hill forts with the lowland farmsteads and their roundhouses found during the 20th century, such as at Little Woodbury and Rispain Camp. Many hill forts are not in fact "forts" at all, and demonstrate little or no evidence of occupation. The development of hill forts may have occurred due to greater tensions that arose between the better structured and more populous social groups. Alternatively, there are suggestions that, in the latter phases of the Iron Age, these structures simply indicate a greater accumulation of wealth and a higher standard of living, although any such shift is invisible in the archaeological record for the Middle Iron Age, when hill forts come into their own. In this regard, they may have served as wider centers used for markets and social contact. Either way, during the Roman occupation the evidence suggests that, as defensive structures, they proved to be of little use against concerted Roman attack. Suetonius comments that Vespasian captured more than twenty "towns" during a campaign in the West Country in 43 AD, and there is some evidence of violence from the hill forts of Hod Hill and Maiden Castle in Dorset from this period. Some hill forts continued as settlements for the newly conquered Britons. Some were also reused by later cultures, such as the Saxons, in the early Medieval period. The people of Iron Age Britain Further information: Insular Celts Celtic movement from the continent The Roman historian Tacitus suggested that the Britons were descended from people who had arrived from the continent, comparing the Caledonians (in modern-day Scotland) to their Germanic neighbors; the Silures of Southern Wales to Iberian settlers; and the inhabitants of Southeast "Britannia" to Gaulish tribes. This migrationist view long informed later views of the origins of the British Iron Age and the making of the modern nations. Linguistic evidence inferred from the surviving Celtic languages in Northern and Western Great Britain at first appeared to support this idea, and the changes in material culture which archaeologists observed during later prehistory were routinely ascribed to a new wave of invaders. From the early 20th century, this "invasionist" scenario was juxtaposed to a diffusionist view. By the 1960s, this latter model seemed to have gained mainstream support, but, in turn, it came under attack in the 1970s. There was certainly a large migration of people from Central Europe westwards during the early Iron Age. The question whether these movements should be described as "invasions,"or as "migrations," or as mostly "diffusion" is largely a semantic one. Examples of events that could be labelled "invasions" include the arrival in Southern Britain of the "Belgae" from the end of the 2nd century BC, as described in Caesar's "Commentaries on the Gallic War." Such sudden events may be invisible in the archaeological record. In this case, it depends on the interpretation of Aylesford-Swarling pottery. Regardless of the "invasionist" vs. "diffusionist" debate, it is beyond dispute that exchanges with the continent were a defining aspect of the British Iron Age. According to Julius Caesar, the Britons further inland than the Belgae believed that they were indigenous. Demography Population estimates vary but the number of people in Iron Age Great Britain could have been three or four million by the first century BC, with most concentrated densely in the agricultural lands of the South. Settlement density and a land shortage may have contributed to rising tensions during the period. The average life expectancy at birth would have been around 25, but at the age of five it would have been around 30. These figures would be slightly lower for women, and slightly higher for men throughout the Middle Iron Age in most areas, on account of the high mortality rate of young women during childbirth; however, the average age for the two sexes would be roughly equal for the Late Iron Age. This interpretation depends on the view that warfare and social strife increased in the Late Iron Age, which seems to be fairly well attested in the archaeological record, for Southern Britain at least. Ptolemy's Albion Claudius Ptolemy described Britain at the beginning of Roman rule but incorporated material from earlier sources. Although the name "Pretanic Isles" had been known since the voyage of Pytheas and "Britannia" was in use by Strabo and Pliny, Ptolemy used the earlier "Albion," known to have been used as early as the Massaliote Periplus. Further information on Iron Age peoples of Britain: Iron Age tribes in Britain and List of Celtic tribes Iron Age beliefs in Britain Further information: Celtic po..
    
38. Title: Wikiwand: Roman emperor
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Roman_emperor;
    Note: The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period (starting in 27 BC). The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history. Often when a given Roman is described as becoming "emperor" in English, it reflects his taking of the title "Augustus" or "Caesar." Another title often used was "imperator," originally a military honorific. Early Emperors also used the title "Princeps Civitatis" ("first citizen"). Emperors frequently amassed republican titles, notably "princeps senatus," "consul" and "pontifex maximus." The legitimacy of an emperor's rule depended on his control of the army and recognition by the Senate; an emperor would normally be proclaimed by his troops, or invested with imperial titles by the Senate, or both. The first emperors reigned alone; later emperors would sometimes rule with co-emperors and divide administration of the empire between them. From Diocletian, whose tetrarchic reforms also divided the position into one emperor in the West and one in the East, until the end of the Empire, emperors ruled in an openly monarchic style and did not preserve the nominal principle of a republic, but the contrast with "kings" was maintained: although the imperial succession was generally hereditary, it was only hereditary if there was a suitable candidate acceptable to the army and the bureaucracy, so the principle of automatic inheritance was not adopted. Elements of the republican institutional framework (senate, consuls, and magistrates) were preserved even after the end of the Western Empire. The Romans considered the office of emperor to be distinct from that of a king. The first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically republican, his successors, Tiberius and Nero, could not convincingly make the same claim. Nonetheless, for the first three hundred years of Roman emperors, from Augustus until Diocletian, efforts were made to portray the emperors as leaders of a republic. The peaceful reign of Constantine the Great, the first to openly convert to Christianity and allowing freedom of religion, witnessed the replacement of the Caput Mundi from Rome to Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century after multiple invasions of imperial territory by Germanic barbarian tribes. Romulus Augustulus is often considered to be the last emperor of the West after his forced abdication in 476, although Julius Nepos maintained a claim recognized by the Eastern Empire to the title until his death in 480. Following Nepos' death, the Eastern Emperor Zeno abolished the division of the position and proclaimed himself as the sole Emperor of a reunited Roman Empire. Emperor Heraclius made diplomatic relations with the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad, but lost many territories after successful Islamic conquests. The Eastern imperial lineage continued to rule from Constantinople ("New Rome"); they continued to style themselves as Emperor of the Romans (later βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων in Greek), but are often referred to in modern scholarship as Byzantine emperors. Constantine XI Palaiologos was the last Roman emperor in Constantinople, dying in the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire's Mehmed II in 1453. The Muslim rulers then claimed the title of Caesar of Rome. The "Byzantine" emperors from Heraclius in 629 and onwards adopted the title of "basileus" ("βασιλεύς"), which had originally meant "king" in Greek but became a title reserved solely for the Roman emperor and the ruler of the Sasanian Empire. Other kings were then referred to as "rēgas." In addition to their pontifical office, some emperors were given divine status after death. With the eventual hegemony of Christianity, the emperor came to be seen as God's chosen ruler, as well as a special protector and leader of the Christian Church on Earth, although in practice an emperor's authority on Church matters was subject to challenge. Due to the cultural rupture of the Turkish conquest, most western historians treat Constantine XI as the last meaningful claimant to the title Roman Emperor. From 1453, one of the titles used by the Ottoman Sultans was "Caesar of Rome" (Turkish: "Kayser-i Rum"), part of their titles until the Ottoman Empire ended in 1922. A Byzantine group of claimant Roman emperors existed in the Empire of Trebizond until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461, though they had used a modified title since 1282. Eastern emperors in Constantinople had been recognized and accepted as Roman emperors both in the East, which they ruled, and by the Papacy and Germanic kingdoms of the West until the deposition of Constantine VI and accession of Irene of Athens as Empress regnant in 797. Objecting to a woman ruling the Roman Empire in her own right and issues with the eastern clergy, the Papacy would then create a rival lineage of Roman emperors in western Europe, the Holy Roman Emperors, which ruled the Holy Roman Empire for most of the period between 800 and 1806. These Emperors were never recognized as Roman emperors by the court in Constantinople. Background and beginning Modern historians conventionally regard Augustus as the first Emperor whereas Julius Caesar is considered the last dictator of the Roman Republic, a view having its origins in the Roman writers Plutarch, Tacitus and Cassius Dio. However, the majority of Roman writers, including Josephus, Pliny the Younger, Suetonius and Appian, as well as most of the ordinary people of the Empire, thought of Julius Caesar as the first Emperor. At the end of the Roman Republic no new, and certainly no single, title indicated the individual who held supreme power. Insofar as emperor could be seen as the English translation of imperator, then Julius Caesar had been an emperor, like several Roman generals before him. Instead, by the end of the civil wars in which Julius Caesar had led his armies, it became clear that there was certainly no consensus to return to the old-style monarchy, but that the period when several officials, bestowed with equal power by the senate, would fight one another had come to an end. Julius Caesar, and then Augustus after him, accumulated offices and titles of the highest importance in the Republic, making the power attached to those offices permanent, and preventing anyone with similar aspirations from accumulating or maintaining power for themselves. However, Julius Caesar, unlike those after him, did so without the Senate's vote and approval. Julius Caesar held the Republican offices of consul four times and dictator five times, was appointed dictator in perpetuity ("dictator perpetuo") in 45 BC and had been "pontifex maximus" for a long period. He gained these positions by senatorial consent and just prior to his assassination, was the most powerful man in the Roman world. In his will, Caesar appointed his adopted son Octavian as his heir. On Caesar's death, Octavian inherited his adoptive father's property and lineage, the loyalty of most of his allies and – again through a formal process of senatorial consent – an increasing number of the titles and offices that had accrued to Caesar. A decade after Caesar's death, Octavian's victory over his erstwhile ally Mark Antony at Actium put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed Octavian's supremacy. In 27 BC, Octavian appeared before the Senate and offered to retire from active politics and government; the Senate not only requested he remain, but increased his powers and made them lifelong, awarding him the title of Augustus (the elevated or divine one, somewhat less than a god but approaching divinity). Augustus stayed in office until his death; the sheer breadth of his superior powers as "princeps" and permanent "imperator" of Rome's armies guaranteed the peaceful continuation of what nominally remained a republic. His "restoration" of powers to the Senate and the people of Rome was a demonstration of his "auctoritas" and pious respect for tradition. Some later historians such as Tacitus would say that even at Augustus' death, the true restoration of the Republic might have been possible. Instead, Augustus actively prepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his successor and pleaded his case to the Senate for inheritance on merit. The Senate disputed the issue but eventually confirmed Tiberius as princeps. Once in power, Tiberius took considerable pains to observe the forms and day-to-day substance of republican government. Classical period Rome had no single constitutional office, title or rank exactly equivalent to the English title "Roman emperor." Romans of the Imperial era used several titles to denote their emperors, and all were associated with the pre-Imperial, Republican era. The legal authority of the emperor derived from an extraordinary concentration of individual powers and offices that were extant in the Republic rather than from a new political office; emperors were regularly elected to the offices of consul and censor. Among their permanent privileges were the traditional Republican title of "princeps senatus" (leader of the Senate) and the religious office of "pontifex maximus" (chief priest of the College of Pontiffs). Every emperor held the latter office and title until Gratian surrendered it in AD 382 to Pope Siricius; it eventually became an auxiliary honor of the Bishop of Rome. " These titles and offices conferred great personal prestige ("dignitas") but the basis of an emperor's powers derived from his "auctoritas": this assumed his greater powers of command "("imperium maius") and tribunician power ("tribunicia potestas") as personal qualities, separate from his public office. As a result, he formally outranked provincial governors and ordinary magistrates. He had the right to enact or revoke sentences of capital punishment, was owed the obedience of private citizens ("privati:) and by the terms of the "ius auxiliandi "could..
    
39. Title: Rice Rees (1836). An essay on the Welsh saints or the primitive Christians, usually considered to have been the founders of the churches in Wales. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman. pp. 82–. Retrieved 10 August 2012
    Author: Rice Rees (1836). An essay on the Welsh saints or the primitive Christians, usually considered to have been the founders of the churches in Wales. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman. pp. 82–. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
    Publication: Name: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyllin#References;
    Note: Cyllin was a legendary, and possibly historical British king of the 1st century AD, early Christian saint and the last pendragon of Great Britain. His existence is based on very limited evidence.[1] Richard Williams Morgan claimed that a reference to him as a son of Caratacus was found in the family records of Iestyn ab Gwrgant and used this as evidence of early entry of Christianity to Britain; Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners.[2] Reference to Cyllin is also given in Iolo Morganwg's "Third series" of forged Welsh Triads.[3] He is also discussed in the works of Rice Rees, Jane Williams, Sabine Baring-Gould and John Williams (Ab Ithel) as brother of Saint Eigen and father of King Coel.[4][5][6][7] He is also noted in a manuscript giving the genealogy of Taliesin from the collection of Thomas Hopkin of Coychurch along with one from the Havod Uchtryd collection where he is called Cynan, a name often associated with Conan Meriadoc.[8]
    Page: family relationship
    
40. Title: Wikiwand: Camulodunum
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Camulodunum;
    Note: Camulodunum (/ˌkæmjʊloʊˈdjuːnəm, ˌkæmʊloʊˈduːnəm/; Latin: camvlodvnvm), the Ancient Roman name for what is now Colchester in Essex, was an important town in Roman Britain, and the first capital of the province. It is claimed to be the oldest town in Britain. Originally the site of the Brythonic-Celtic oppidum of Camulodunon (meaning "stronghold of Camulos"), capital of the Trinovantes and later the Catuvellauni tribes, it was first mentioned by name on coinage minted by the chieftain Tasciovanus sometime between 20 and 10 BC. The Roman town began life as a Roman Legionary base constructed in the AD 40s on the site of the Brythonic-Celtic fortress following its conquest by the Emperor Claudius. After the early town was destroyed during the Iceni rebellion in 60/1 AD, it was rebuilt, reaching its zenith in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. During this time it was known by its official name Colonia Claudia Victricensis (colonia clavdia victricensis), often shortened to Colonia Victricensis, and as "Camulodunum," a Latinized version of its original Brythonic name. The town was home to a large classical Temple, two theatres (including Britain's largest), several Romano-British temples, Britain's only known chariot circus, Britain's first town walls, several large cemeteries and over 50 known mosaics and tessellated pavements. It may have reached a population of 30,000 at its height. It was not until the late 18th century that historians realized that Colchester's physical Brythonic and Roman remains were the city mentioned in ancient literature as "Camulodunum." Iron Age "Camulodunon" The earliest Iron Age defensive site at Colchester is the Pitchbury Ramparts earthwork north of the town between West Bergholt and Great Horkesley. The main earthwork defenses of the Brythonic Celtic oppidum of "Camulodunon" were built later, beginning in the 1st century BC but most date from the 1st century AD. They are considered the most extensive of their kind in Britain. The defenses consist of lines of ditches and ramparts, possibly palisaded with gateways, that mostly run parallel to each other in a north–south direction. The Iron Age settlement was protected by rivers on three sides, with the River Colne bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River valley forming the southern boundary; the earthworks were mostly designed to close off the western gap between these two river valleys. Other earthworks close off eastern parts of the settlement. These earthworks gave the oppidum its Brythonic Celtic name - Camulodunon meant "The Stronghold of Camulus," the British God of War. Together they enclose an area of 1,000ha, much larger than the area enclosed by the Iron Age defenses at Wheathampstead (35ha). The main sites within the bounds of these defenses are the Gosbecks farmstead, the Sheepen industrial area and the Lexden burials. The Gosbecks site consists of a large, high-status farmstead, believed to be the home of the tribal chieftains of Camulodunon. Part of the Gosbecks complex is a large, square enclosure surrounded by a deep, wide ditch. This has been interpreted as part of a possible religious site, as during the Roman period a large temple was built in the middle of this enclosure. The Sheepen site, located around what is now St Helena School on the banks of the River Colne, was a large industrial and port zone, where extensive iron and leather working activity was carried out, as well as an important coin mint. Two coins minted at Sheepen, one found in Colchester in 1980 and another found at Canturbury in 1978, depict boats, and are the only known depictions of sailing vessels from Iron Age Britain. Amphorae containing imported goods from the continent have been found at Sheepen, as have pieces of imported Samian pottery. Just inside the earthworks, at Lexden, are located the burial mounds of the rulers of Camulodunon, which contain large amounts of grave goods including imported Roman material from Europe; the largest of these mounds is the Lexden tumulus. The Lexden area around the mounds contains several Iron Age cremation burial groups, including one containing the "Mirror burial," with other burials located around the Camulodunon site. A large cluster of cremations from St. Clares road and Fitzwalter Road close to the Lexden Tumulus date to 50-10 BC. Aside from these main activity areas, the 1,000ha area enclosed by the defensive earthworks and rivers mainly consisted of a network of droveways, hollow ways, pastures and fields associated with cattle herding. Scattered Roundhouses and burials have been discovered amongst these droveways. The defences were designed to protect the high status and industrial areas as well as prevent cattle rustling of valuable herds. Camulodunon was surrounded by farmsteads like those at Abbotstone near Colchester Zoo and at Birch Quarry, many of which continued to exist on into the Roman period until at least the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. Iron Age salt works (known as Red hills) have been found in large numbers around the Essex coast, including several large concentrations located in the salt marshes close to Camulodunon in the Colne Estuary, on the Roman River near Fingringhoe, in Alresford Creek, on Mersea Island, the Pyefleet Channel, the Blackwater River and around the Tendring Peninsula. Two large groups existed at Peldon and Tolleshunt D'Arcy. Camulodunon may have been an at the center of the local trade in this important preservative. Addedomarus, a king of the Trinovantes tribe (originally centered at Braughing), is the first identifiable ruler of Camulodunon, known from his inscribed coins dating to around 25-10 BC. For a brief period around 10 BC Tasciovanus, a king of the Catuvellauni already issuing coins from Verlamion, also issued coins from Camulodunon, suggesting that the Trinovantes' capital had been conquered by the Catuvellauni, but he was soon forced to withdraw, perhaps as a result of Roman pressure – his later coins are no longer marked with the Latin "REX" (for "king"), but with the Brythonic "RICON" – and Addedomarus was restored. His son Dubnovellaunus succeeded him, but was soon supplanted by Tasciovanus' son Cunobelinus. Cunobelinus then succeeded his father at Verlamion, beginning the dominance of the Catuvellauni over the south-east. Cunobelinus was friendly with Rome, marking his coins with the word REX and classical motifs rather than the traditional Gallo-Belgic designs. Archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods, probably through the Sheepen site port of Camulodunon, during his reign. He was probably one of the British kings that Strabo says sent embassies to Augustus. Strabo reports Rome's lucrative trade with Britain; the island's exports included grain, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hunting dogs. Iron ingots, slave chains and storage vessels discovered at the Sheepen site appear to confirm this trade with the Empire. Pre-Boudican Roman town Claudian invasion Main article: Roman invasion of Britain The Catuvellauni king Cunobelinus, ruling from his capital at Camulodunon, had subjugated a large area of southern and eastern Britain, and was called by the Roman historian Suetonius "King of the Britons." Under his rule Camulodunon had replaced Verlamion as the most important settlement in pre-Roman Britain. Around 40 AD he had fallen out with his son Adminius (acting as proxy ruler of the Cantiaci tribe in his father's name), who had fled to Rome for support. There he was received by the Emperor Gaius, who may have attempted an invasion of Britain to put Adminius on his father's throne. After Cunobelinus’ death (c. 40 AD) his sons took power, with Togodumnus the eldest ruling the Catuvellauni homeland around Verlamion, and Caratacus ruling from Camulodunon. Together these brothers began expanding their influence over other British tribes, including the Atrebates of the south coast. Verica, king of the Atrebates, which had branches on both sides of the English Channel and had been friends of Rome since Caesar's conquest, appealed to the Emperor Claudius for aid. At the time of this appeal in 43 AD the newly enthroned Emperor Claudius was in need of a military victory in order to secure his shaky position with the military, and saw this call for help as the perfect pretext. Aulus Plautius led the four Roman legions across to Britain with Camulodunon being their main target, defeating and killing Togodumnus near the Thames and then waiting for Claudius to cross the Channel. Claudius arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, leading the attack on Camulodunon. Caratacus fled the storming of the town, taking refuge with the Ordovices and Silures tribes in Wales and becoming a Welsh folk hero for his resistance to Rome. The Roman historian Suetonius and Claudius' triumphal arch state that after this battle the British kings who had been under Cunobelinus’ sons’ control surrendered without further bloodshed, Claudius accepting their submission in Camulodunon. Roman fortress and early town As the stronghold of a major tribe in the south-east, Camulodunum held strategic importance. A Roman legionary fortress or "castrum," the first permanent legionary fortress to be built in Britain, was established within the confines of Camulodunon (which was latinized as "Camulodunum") following the successful invasion in 43, and was home to the Twentieth Legion. A smaller fort was built against the Iron Age earthworks close to the Gosbecks high-status farmstead, and was home to the Ala Primae Thracum ("First Wing of Thracians," a cavalry regiment) and the Cohors Primae Vangionum ("First Cohort of Vangiones," a mixed cavalry-infantry unit from Gaul). The legionary fortress was larger than a standard "castrum," and included a large annex on its north-east side. It was protected by a large palisaded ditch and wall (Roman military "Vallum" and Fossa"), along with new earthwork ditch and rampart defenses, built to suppl..
    
41. Title: Mabinogion (1849). The Mabinogion, from the Llyfr coch o Hergest, and other ancient Welsh MSS., with an Engl. pp. 391–. Retrieved 10 August 2012
    Author: Mabinogion (1849). The Mabinogion, from the Llyfr coch o Hergest, and other ancient Welsh MSS., with an Engl. pp. 391–. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
    Publication: Name: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyllin#References;
    Note: Cyllin was a legendary, and possibly historical British king of the 1st century AD, early Christian saint and the last pendragon of Great Britain. His existence is based on very limited evidence.[1] Richard Williams Morgan claimed that a reference to him as a son of Caratacus was found in the family records of Iestyn ab Gwrgant and used this as evidence of early entry of Christianity to Britain; Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners.[2] Reference to Cyllin is also given in Iolo Morganwg's "Third series" of forged Welsh Triads.[3] He is also discussed in the works of Rice Rees, Jane Williams, Sabine Baring-Gould and John Williams (Ab Ithel) as brother of Saint Eigen and father of King Coel.[4][5][6][7] He is also noted in a manuscript giving the genealogy of Taliesin from the collection of Thomas Hopkin of Coychurch along with one from the Havod Uchtryd collection where he is called Cynan, a name often associated with Conan Meriadoc.[8]
    Page: family relationship