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Darius I "The Great" of Persia, King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire


Preferred Parents:
Father: Hystaspes Persian Satrap of Bactria and Persis, b. 570 BC in Anshan, Elamite Kingdom, Persia   d. 521 BC in Anshan, Elam, Persian Empire
Mother: Rhodah bat-Gobryas, Princess of Persia, b. ABT 575 BC in Persia   

Family 1: Artystone bint Cyrus II II,    b. ABT 560 BC   
Family 2: Aminta bint Gobryas,    b. ABT 550 BC in Babylonia    d. in Anshan, Iran
Family 3: Parmys bint Smerdis,      
Family 4: Phaidymia bint Otanes,      
Family 5: Phratagune ,      
Family 6: Atossa bint Cyrus II, Princess of Persia,    b. 550 BC in Pasargadae, Fars, Persian Empire    d. 475 BC, age 74–75 in Persian Empire
  1. Xerxes King of Persia I, b. 518 BC in Persepolis, Persian Empire     d. AUG 465 BC in Persepolis, Persian Empire
Sources:
  1. Title: Genopro:
    Publication: Name: http://familytrees.genopro.com/azrael/skaggs/Persia-DariusI-ind01399.htm;
  2. Title: "History of Darius the Great," by Jacob Abbott
    Author: Harper & Brothers, 1850
    Publication: Name: https://books.google.com/books?id=TRooAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA69&vq=Darius&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=3#v=onepage&q=Darius&f=false;
  3. Title: "Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present," by Christopher I. Beckwith
    Author: Princeton University Press, Apr 5, 2009
    Publication: Name: https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC&q=darius#v=snippet&q=darius&f=false;
    Note: The first complete history of Central Eurasia from ancient times to the present day, "Empires of the Silk Road" represents a fundamental rethinking of the origins, history, and significance of this major world region. Christopher Beckwith describes the rise and fall of the great Central Eurasian empires, including those of the Scythians, Attila the Hun, the Turks and Tibetans, and Genghis Khan and the Mongols. In addition, he explains why the heartland of Central Eurasia led the world economically, scientifically, and artistically for many centuries despite invasions by Persians, Greeks, Arabs, Chinese, and others. In retelling the story of the Old World from the perspective of Central Eurasia, Beckwith provides a new understanding of the internal and external dynamics of the Central Eurasian states and shows how their people repeatedly revolutionized Eurasian civilization. Beckwith recounts the Indo-Europeans' migration out of Central Eurasia, their mixture with local peoples, and the resulting development of the Graeco-Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese civilizations; he details the basis for the thriving economy of pre-modern Central Eurasia, the economy's disintegration following the region's partition by the Chinese and Russians in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and the damaging of Central Eurasian culture by Modernism; and he discusses the significance for world history of the partial reemergence of Central Eurasian nations after the collapse of the Soviet Union. "Empires of the Silk Road" places Central Eurasia within a world historical framework and demonstrates why the region is central to understanding the history of civilization.
  4. Title: Wikiwand: List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_biblical_figures_identified_in_extra-biblical_sources;
    Note: These are biblical figures unambiguously identified in contemporary sources according to scholarly consensus. Biblical figures that are identified in artifacts of questionable authenticity, for example the Jehoash Inscription and the bullae of Baruch ben Neriah, or who are mentioned in ancient but non-contemporary documents, such as David and Balaam, are excluded from this list. Hebrew Bible (Protocanonical Old Testament) The Hebrew Bible, known in Judaism by the acronym "Tanakh," is the collection of ancient writings that are considered sacred by both Jews and Christians. They tell the story of the Jewish people and their ancestors, starting from the creation narrative and concluding near the building of the 2nd Temple (end of the 5th century BCE). Although the first mention of the name "Israel" in archaeology dates to the 13th century BCE, contemporary information on the Israelite nation prior to the 9th century BCE is extremely sparse. In the following centuries a small number of local Hebrew documents, mostly seals and bullae, mention biblical characters, but more extensive information is available in the royal inscriptions from neighboring kingdoms, particularly Babylon, Assyria and Egypt. Name Title Date (BCE) Attestation and Notes Biblical references Adrammelech Prince of Assyria fl. 681 Identified as the murderer of his father Sennacherib in the Bible and in an Assyrian letter to Esarhaddon (ABL 1091), where he is called "Arda-Mulissi." Is. 37:38, 2 Kgs. 19:37† Ahab King of Israel c. 874 – c. 853 Identified in the contemporary Kurkh Monolith inscription of Shalmaneser III that describes the Battle of Qarqar and mentions "2,000 chariots, 10,000 soldiers of Ahab the Israelite" defeated by Shalmaneser. 1 Kgs. 17, 2 Chr. 18 Ahaz King of Judah c. 732 – c. 716 Mentioned in a contemporary Summary Inscription of Tiglath-Pileser III which records that he received tribute from "Jehoahaz of Judah." Also identified in royal bullae belonging to Ahaz himself and his son Hezekiah. 2 Kgs. 16, Hos. 1:1, Mi. 1:1, Is. 1:1 Apries Pharaoh of Egypt 589–570 Also known as Hophra; named in numerous contemporary inscriptions including those of the capitals of the columns of his palace. Herodotus speaks of him in Histories II, 161–171. Jer. 44:30† Artaxerxes I King of Persia 465–424 Widely identified with "Artaxerxes" in the book of Nehemiah. He is also found in the writings of contemporary historian Thucydides. Scholars are divided over whether the king in Ezra's time was the same, or Artaxerxes II. Neh. 2:1, Neh. 5:14 Ashurbanipal King of Assyria 668 – c. 627 Generally identified with "the great and noble Osnappar," mentioned in the Book of Ezra. His name survives in his own writings, which describe his military campaigns against Elam, Susa and other nations. Ezr. 4:10† Belshazzar Coregent of Babylon c. 553–539 Mentioned by his father Nabonidus in the Nabonidus Cylinder. According to another Babylonian tablet, Nabonidus "entrusted the kingship to him" when he embarked on a lengthy military campaign. Dn. 5, Dn. 7:1, Dn. 8:1 Ben-hadad King of Aram Damascus early 8th century Mentioned in the Zakkur Stele. A son of Hazael, he is variously called Ben-Hadad/Bar-Hadad II/III. 2 Kgs. 13:3, 2 Kgs. 13:24 Cyrus II King of Persia 559–530 Appears in many ancient inscriptions, most notably the Cyrus Cylinder. He is also mentioned in Herodotus' Histories. Is. 45:1, Dn. 1:21 Darius I King of Persia 522–486 Mentioned in the books of Haggai, Zechariah and Ezra. He is the author of the Behistun Inscription. He is also mentioned in Herodotus' Histories. Hg. 1:1, Ezr. 5:6 Esarhaddon King of Assyria 681–669 His name survives in his own writings, as well as in those of his son Ashurbanipal. Is. 37:38, Ezr. 4:2 Evil Merodach King of Babylon c. 562–560 His name (Akkadian Amēl-Marduk) and title were found on a vase from his palace, and on several cuneiform tablets. 2 Kgs. 25:27, Jer. 52:31† Hazael King of Aram Damascus c. 842 – c. 800 Shalmaneser III of Assyria records that he defeated Hazael in battle and captured many chariots and horses from him. Most scholars think that Hazael was the author of the Tel Dan Stele. 1 Kgs. 19:15, 2 Kgs. 8:8, Am. 1:4 Hezekiah King of Judah c. 715 – c. 686 An account is preserved by Sennacherib of how he besieged "Hezekiah, the Jew," who "did not submit to my yoke", in his capital city of Jerusalem. A bulla was also found bearing Hezekia's name and title, reading "Belonging to Hezekiah [son of] Ahaz king of Judah." 2 Kgs. 16:20, Prv. 25:1, Hos. 1:1, Mi. 1:1, Is. 1:1 Hoshea King of Israel c. 732 – c. 723 He was put into power by Tilgath-Pileser III, king of Assyria, as recorded in his Annals, found in Calah. 2 Kgs. 15:30, 2 Kgs. 18:1 Jehoash King of Israel c. 798 – c. 782 Mentioned in records of Adad-nirari III of Assyria as "Jehoash of Samaria." 2 Kgs. 13:10, 2 Chr. 25:17 Jehoiachin King of Judah 598–597 He was taken captive to Babylon after Nebuchadrezzar first captured Jerusalem. Texts from Nebuchadrezzar's Southern Palace record the rations given to "Jehoiachin king of the Judeans" (Akkadian: Ya'ukin sar Yaudaya). 2 Kgs. 25:14, Jer. 52:31 Jehu King of Israel c. 841 – c. 814 Mentioned on the Black Obelisk. 1 Kgs. 19:16, Hos. 1:4 Johanan High Priest of Israel c. 410 – c. 371 Mentioned in a letter from the Elephantine Papyri. Neh. 12:22–23 Jotham King of Judah c. 740 – c. 732 Identified as the father of King Ahaz on a contemporary clay bulla, reading "of Ahaz [son of] Jotham king of Judah." 2 Kgs. 15:5, Hos. 1:1, Mi. 1:1, Is. 1:1 Manasseh King of Judah c. 687 – c. 643 Mentioned in the writings of Esarhaddon, who lists him as one of the kings who had brought him gifts and aided his conquest of Egypt. 2 Kgs. 20:21, Jer. 15:4 Menahem King of Israel c. 752 – c. 742 The annals of Tiglath-Pileser record that Menahem paid tribute him, as stated in the Books of Kings. 2 Kgs. 15:14–23 Mesha King of Moab fl. c. 840 Author of the Mesha Stele. 2 Kgs. 3:4† Merodach-Baladan King of Babylon 722–710 Named in the Great Inscription of Sargon II in his palace at Khorsabat. Also called "Berodach-Baladan" (Akkadian: Marduk-apla-iddina). Is. 39:1, 2 Kgs. 20:12† Nebuchadnezzar II King of Babylon c. 605–562 Mentioned in numerous contemporary sources, including the inscription of the Ishtar Gate, which he built. Also called Nebuchadrezzar (Akkadian: Nabû-kudurri-uṣur). Ez. 26:7, Dn. 1:1, 2 Kgs. 24:1 Nebuzaradan Babylonian official fl. c. 587 Mentioned in a prism in Istanbul (No. 7834), found in Babylon where he is listed as the "chief cook." Jer. 52:12, 2 Kgs. 25:8 Nebo-Sarsekim Chief Eunuch of Babylon fl. c. 587 Listed as Nabu-sharrussu-ukin in a Babylonian tablet. Jer. 39:3† Necho II Pharaoh of Egypt c. 610 – c. 595 Mentioned in the writings of Ashurbanipal 2 Kgs. 23:29, Jer. 46:2 Omri King of Israel c. 880 – c. 874 Mentioned, together with his unnamed son or successor, on the Mesha Stele. 1 Kgs. 16:16, Mi. 6:16 Pekah King of Israel c. 740 – c. 732 Mentioned in the annals of Tiglath-Pileser III. 2 Kgs. 15:25, Is. 7:1 Rezin King of Aram Damascus died c. 732 A tributary of Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria and the last king of Aram Damascus. According to the Bible, he was eventually put to death by Tiglath-Pileser. 2 Kgs. 16:7–9, Is. 7:1 Sanballat Governor of Samaria fl. 445 A leading figure of the opposition which Nehemiah encountered during the rebuilding of the walls around the temple in Jerusalem. Sanballat is mentioned in the Elephantine Papyri. Neh. 2:10, Neh. 13:28 Sargon II King of Assyria 722–705 He besieged and conquered the city of Samaria and took many thousands captive, as recorded in the Bible and in an inscription in his royal palace. His name, however, does not appear in the biblical account of this siege, but only in reference to his siege of Ashdod. Is. 20:1† Sennacherib King of Assyria 705–681 The author of a number of inscriptions discovered near Nineveh. 2 Kgs. 18:13, Is. 36:1 Shalmaneser V King of Assyria 727–722 Mentioned on several royal palace weights found at Nimrud. Another inscription was found that is thought to be his, but the name of the author is only partly preserved. 2 Kgs. 17:3, 2 Kgs. 18:9† Taharqa Pharaoh of Egypt, King of Kush 690–664 Called "Tirhaka, the king of Kush" in the books of Kings and Isaiah. Several contemporary sources mention him and fragments of three statues bearing his name were excavated at Nineveh. Is. 37:9, 2 Kgs. 19:9† Tattenai Governor of Eber-Nari fl. 520 Known from contemporary Babylonian documents. He governed the Persian province west of the Euphrates river during the reign of Darius I. Ezr. 5:3, Ezr. 6:13 Tiglath-Pileser III King of Assyria 745–727 Numerous writings are ascribed to him and he is mentioned, among others, in an inscription by Barrakab, king of Sam'al. He exiled inhabitants of the cities he captured in Israel. 2 Kgs. 15:29, 1 Chr. 5:6 Xerxes I King of Persia 486–465 Called Ahasuerus in the books of Ezra and Esther. Xerxes is known in archaeology through a number of tablets and monuments, notably the "Gate of All Nations" in Persepolis. He is also mentioned in Herodotus' Histories. Est. 1:1, Dn. 9:1, Ezr. 4:6 Deuterocanonicals or biblical apocrypha The deuterocanon consists of books and parts of books that are included in the Old Testament canon of the Eastern Orthodox and/or Roman Catholic churches, but are not part of the Jewish Tanakh, and are regarded as apocryphal by Protestants. In contrast to the Tanakh, which is preserved in Hebrew (with some Aramaic parts), the deuterocanonical books are preserved mainly in Koine Greek, though Hebrew and Aramaic fragments have been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. While the deuterocanon describes events between the eighth and second centuries BCE, most historically identifiable people mentioned in the deuterocanon lived around the time of the Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE), by which time Judea had become part of the Seleucid Empire. Coins featuring the names of rulers had become widespread and many of them were insc..
  5. Title: Wikiwand: Darius the Mede
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Note: Darius the Mede is mentioned in the Book of Daniel as king of Babylon between Belshazzar and Cyrus the Great, but he is not known to history, and no additional king can be placed between the known figures of Belshazzar and Cyrus. Most scholars view him as a literary fiction, but some have tried to harmonize the Book of Daniel with history by identifying him with various known figures, notably Cyrus or Gobryas, the general who was first to enter Babylon when it fell to the Persians in 539 BCE. The Book of Daniel Darius the Mede is first mentioned in the story of Belshazzar's feast (Daniel 5). Belshazzar, king of Babylon, holds a great feast, during which a hand appears and writes on the wall: "MENE, MENE, TEKEL, and PARSIN" (מנא מנא תקל ופרסין). Daniel interprets the words: Belshazzar has been weighed and found wanting, and his kingdom is to be divided between the Medes and Persians. The story concludes: "That very night Belshazzar the Chaldean (Babylonian) king was killed, and Darius the Mede received the kingdom. In the story of Daniel in the lions' den (Daniel 6), Daniel has continued to serve at the royal court under Darius, and has been raised to high office. His jealous rivals plot his downfall, tricking Darius into issuing a decree that no prayers should be addressed to any god or man but to Darius himself, on pain of death. Daniel continues to pray to the God of Israel, and Darius, although deeply distressed, must condemn him to be thrown into the lions' den because the edicts of the Medes and Persians cannot be altered. At daybreak the king hurries to the place and Daniel tells him that his God sent an angel to save him. Darius commands that those who had conspired against Daniel should be thrown to the lions in his place, along with their wives and children. The final appearance of Darius is in Daniel 9, which presents a vision of Daniel relating to the end-time travails and triumph of the Israelites over their enemies. The mention of Darius is used as a chronological marker, placing the vision in "the first year of Darius son of Ahasuerus." Historical and literary background The Medes and the fall of Babylon The Medes came to prominence in 612 BCE when they joined with the Babylonians in overthrowing Assyria. Little is known about them, but they were possibly a significant power in the Middle East for several decades thereafter. The fall of their empire is recorded in a Babylonian inscription from around 553 BCE (a second report puts the event in 550 BCE) reporting that the Median king has been conquered by "Cyrus, king of Anshan," in south-western Iran: this is the first appearance of Cyrus in the historical record, and the beginning of the rapid rise of the Persians. After extending his empire from the Mediterranean to Central Asia, Cyrus turned his attention to Babylonia. The most important ancient sources for his conquest of Babylon are the Nabonidus Chronicle (Nabonidus was the last Babylonian king, and Belshazzar, who is described as king of Babylon in the Book of Daniel, was his son and crown prince), the Cyrus Cylinder, and the Verse Account of Nabonidus—which, despite its name, was commissioned by Cyrus.[6] Cyrus' Babylonian campaign began in 539 BCE, although there were presumably previous tensions. On 10 October Cyrus won a battle at Opis, opening the way to Babylon, and on 12 October "Ugbaru, governor of the district of Gutium, and the army of Cyrus entered Babylon without a battle" (Babylonian Chronicle). Ugbaru is presumably the same person as the Gorbyras mentioned by the Greek historian Xenophon, a Babylonian provincial governor who switched to the Persian side. Cyrus made his entrance into the city a few days later; Nabonidus was captured and his life spared, but nothing is known of the fate of Belshazzar. The Book of Daniel The Book of Daniel is not regarded by scholars as a reliable guide to history. The broad consensus is that Daniel never existed, and that the author appears to have taken the name from a legendary hero of the distant past mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel. The book that bears his name is an apocalypse, not a book of prophecy, and its contents form a cryptic allusion to the persecution of the Jews by the Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes (reigned 175–164 BCE). There is broad agreement that the stories making up chapters 1–6 are legendary in character, and that the visions of chapters 7–12 were added during the persecution of Antiochus, the book itself being completed soon after 164 BCE. Daniel 5 and Daniel 6 belong to the folktales making up the first half of the book. The language of Daniel 5 ("Belshazzar's Feast"), for example, follows ancient Near Eastern conventions which are in some cases precisely those used in Daniel. Daniel 6 ("Daniel in the Lions' Den") is based on the classic Babylonian folk-tale "Ludlul-bel-nemeqi," telling of a courtier who suffers disgrace at the hands of evil enemies but is eventually restored due to the intervention of a kindly god (in the story in Daniel, this is the God of Israel): in the Babylonian original the "pit of lions" is a metaphor for human adversaries at court, but the biblical tale has turned the metaphorical lions into real animals. In Daniel 9, Daniel, pondering the meaning of Jeremiah's prediction that Jerusalem would remain desolate for seventy years, is told by the angel Gabriel that the 70 years should be taken to mean seventy weeks (literally "sevens") of years. Verse 1 sets the time of Daniel's vision as the "first year of Darius son of Ahasuerus, by birth a Mede," but no Darius is known to history, nor can any king of Babylon be placed between the genuine historical figures of Belshazzar and Cyrus. Identity H. H. Rowley's 1935 study of the question (Darius the Mede and the Four World Empires of Darius the Mede, 1935) demonstrated that Darius the Mede cannot be identified with any king, and he is generally seen today as a literary fiction combining the historical Persian king Darius I and the words of Jeremiah 51:11 that God "stirred up" the Medes against Babylon. Nevertheless, numerous attempts have been made to identify him with historical figures, with the following being perhaps the best-known candidates: . Darius the Great (Darius I Hystaspes), c. 550–486 BCE. This historically known Darius was the third Persian emperor, and an important figure for Jews in the early Persian period because of his role in the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem. At the beginning of his career Darius had to (re)conquer Babylon to remove a usurper, before expanding the empire and dividing it into satrapies. The author of Daniel, mindful of certain prophecies that the Medes would destroy Babylon (Jeremiah 51:11,28 and Isaiah 13:17), and needing a Median king to complete his four-kingdom schema (see the story of Nebuchadnezzar's dream in Daniel 2), appears to have taken the historic Darius and projected him into a fictional past. . Astyages. Astyages was the last king of the Medes; he was defeated by Cyrus in 550 (or 553), his father was named Cyaxares (not Ahasuerus/Xerxes), and there is no record of him being present at the fall of Babylon. Consequently, he gets little attention in modern apologetics, but the 1st century CE Jewish historian Josephus, followed later by the early Christian Church Father Jerome, harmonised Daniel with the historical sources by claiming that Darius the Mede was a son of Astyages. . "Cyaxares II". The Greek writer Xenophon tells of a Median king called Cyaxares who was the son of Astyages; other Greek historians say that Astyages had no son. According to Xenophon, Cyrus became king of Media through marriage to Cyaxares' daughter—contradicting all other sources, notably the Babylonian, which say Cyrus won Media by conquest from Astyages. Xenophon is not given credence by historians, and he does not, in any case, say that this otherwise unknown Cyaxares ruled Babylon. . Cyrus. This argument hinges on a reinterpretation of Daniel 6:28, "Daniel prospered during the reign of Darius, and the reign of Cyrus the Persian," to read "Daniel prospered during the reign of Darius, even the reign of Cyrus the Persian," making them the same individual. William Shea, a conservative scholar, comments that it would be strange to refer to Cyrus the Persian, son of Cambyses I, as Darius the Mede, son of Ahasuerus, and strange also to refer to the same king as Cyrus in some passages and Darius in others. . Cambyses II. Cambyses was Cyrus' son and his successor as emperor. The Babylonian records indicate that Cyrus installed him as regent in Babylon, but he was not a Mede, his father was not Ahasuerus, and he was probably not sixty-two years old. . Gubaru (or Ugbaru, called Gobryas in Greek sources), the general who was the first to enter Babylon. Ugbaru was the Babylonian governor of Gutium (an area closely associated with Media in Babylonian sources) before switching sides to the Persians, and Cyrus seems to have given him administrative responsibility for Babylon after its capture, but he never held the title "King of Babylon."
  6. Title: Wikiwand: List of monarchs of Persia
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia;
    Note: This article lists the monarchs of Persia (Iran) from the establishment of the Median Empire by Medes around 705 BC until the deposition of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979. Earlier monarchs in the area of modern-day Iran are listed in: . List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran Minor dynasties and vassal monarchs can be found in: . List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms . Islamic dynasties of Iran Median Empire (678–549 BC) Main article: Medes Portrait Name Family relations Reign Notes Median Kingdom (678 BC–549 BC) Deioces 700–647 BC First known ruler of Media Phraortes Son of Deioces 647–625 BC Scythian rule (624–597 BC) Cyaxares Son of Phraortes 624–585 BC The dynasty of the Median kings was known as Cyaxarid dynasty, named after him or a pre-Deicoes king. Astyages Son of Cyaxares 585–549 BC Last king of the Medes Achaemenid Kingdom (~705–559 BC) Main article: Achaemenid Kingdom Portrait Name Family relations Reign Notes Achaemenid dynasty (~705–559 BC) Achaemenes ~705 BC First ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom Teispes Son of Achaemenes ~640 BC Cyrus I Son of Teispes ~580 BC Cambyses I Son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus II ~550 BC Achaemenid Empire (559–334/327 BC) Main article: Achaemenid Empire Portrait Titles Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Achaemenid dynasty (559–334/327 BC) The Great King, King of Kings, King of Anshan, King of Media, King of Babylon, King of Sumer and Akkad, King of the Four Corners of the World Cyrus the Great – 600 BC Son of Cambyses I king of Anshan and Mandana daughter of Astyages 559–530 BC 530 BC King of Anshan from 559 BC. Killed in battle with Massagetes The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Cambyses II – ? Son of Cyrus the Great 530–522 BC 521 BC Died while en route to put down a rebellion. Pharaonic titulary: Horus: Smatawy, Nswbty: Mesutire The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Bardiya Gaumata (?) ? Son of Cyrus the Great (possibly an imposter claiming to be Bardiya) 522 BC 522 BC Killed by Persian aristocrats The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Darius I – 550 BC Son of Hystaspes 522–486 BC 486 BC Pharaonic titulary: Horus: Menkhib Nswbty: Stutre The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Xerxes I – 519 BC Son of Darius I 485–465 BC 465 BC Most likely is the King Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Artaxerxes I Arses ? Son of Xerxes I 465–424 BC 424 BC Believed by some to be the King Ahaseurus of the Book of Esther The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Xerxes II Artaxerxes ? Son of Artaxerxes I 424 BC 424 BC Only recognised in Persia itself, killed by Sogdianus The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt ? Sogdianus ? Son of Artaxerxes I 424–423 BC 423 BC Only recognised in Persia and Elam, killed by Darius II The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Darius II Ochus ? Son of Artaxerxes I 424–404 BC 404 BC The Great King, King of Kings Artaxerxes II Arsaces 436 Son of Darius II 404–358 BC 358 BC The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Artaxerxes III Ochus ? Son of Artaxerxes II 358–338 BC 338 BC Killed The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Artaxerxes IV Arses ? Son of Artaxerxes III 338–336 BC 336 BC Killed The Great King, King of Kings, Pharaoh of Egypt Darius III Artashata 380 Son of Arsames son of Ostanes son of Darius II 336–330 BC 330 BC Killed by Artaxerxes V The Great King, King of Kings Artaxerxes V Bessus ? Probably a descendant of Artaxerxes II 330–329 BC 329 BC Killed by Alexander III "Note: Ancient Persia is generally agreed to have ended with the collapse of the Achaemenid dynasty as a result of the Wars of Alexander the Great." Macedonian Empire (336–306 BC) Main article: Macedonian Empire Portrait Title Name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Argead dynasty (336–306 BC) King Alexander the Great 356 BC Son of Philip II of Macedonia 336–323 BC 13 June 323 BC King of Macedonia from 336 BC as Alexander III King Philip III c. 359 BC Son of Philip II of Macedonia June 323– 317 BC 317 BC Killed by Olympias King Alexander IV Sept. 323 BC Son of Alexander III Sept. 323–309 BC 309 BC King of Macedonia as Alexander IV until 309 BC. Killed by Cassander son of Antipater Regent Perdiccas ? June 323–321 BC 321 BC Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III, Prince of Orestis Regent Antipater 398 BC Son of Iollas 321–319 BC 319 BC Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III Regent Polyperchon 394 BC Son of Simmias 319–316 BC 303 BC Regent for Alexander IV & Philip III. Exercised no actual power in Persia. Regent Cassander c. 350 Son of Antipater 316–309 BC 297 BC Regent for and murderer of Alexander IV. Exercised no actual power in Persia. Seleucid Empire (311–129 BC) Main article: Seleucid Empire Portrait Title Regnal name Personal name Birth Family relations Reign Death Notes Seleucid dynasty (311–129 BC) King Seleucus I Nicator – c. 358 BC Son of Antiochus son of Seleucus 311–281 BC 281 BC Assumed title of "King" from 306 BC. King Antiochus I Soter – ? Son of Seleucus I 281–261 BC 261 BC Co-ruler from 291 King Antiochus II Theos – 286 BC Son of Antiochus I 261–246 BC 246 BC King Seleucus II Callinicus – ? Son of Antiochus II 246–225 BC 225 BC King Seleucus III Ceraunus Alexander c. 243 BC Son of Seleucus II 225–223 BC 223 BC Great King Antiochus III the Great – c. 241 BC Son of Seleucus II 223–187 BC 187 BC King Seleucus IV Philopator – ? Son of Antiochus III 187–175 BC 175 BC King Antiochus IV Epiphanes Mithridates c. 215 BC Son of Antiochus III 175–163 BC 163 BC Killed in Elymais King Antiochus V Eupator – c. 172 BC Son of Antiochus IV 163–161 BC 161 BC King Demetrius I Soter – 185 BC Son of Seleucus IV 161–150 BC 150 BC King Alexander Balas – ? Purported son of Antiochus IV 150–146 BC 146 BC King Demetrius II Nicator – ? Son of Demetrius I 146–139 BC 139 BC Defeated and captured by Parthians. He married Rhodogune daughter of Mithridates I King Antiochus VI Dionysus – 148 BC Son of Alexander III. 145–142 BC 138 BC In competition with Demetrius II. King Antiochus VII Sidetes – ? Son of Demetrius I 139–129 BC 129 BC Killed in battle with Phraates II Fratarakas Main article: Frataraka The Fratarakas appear to have been Governors of the Seleucid Empire. Name Date Coinage Family Relations Note 1 Bagadates/ Baydād (bgdt) 3rd century BC Fratarakā dynasty - son of Baykard Governor of the Seleucid Empire. Coin legend bgdt prtrk’ zy ’lhy’ (“Baydād, fratarakā of the gods”) in Aramaic. 2 Ardaxšīr I (rtḥštry) mid-3nd century BC Fratarakā dynasty Governor of the Seleucid Empire 3 Vahbarz (whwbrz - called Oborzos in Polyenus 7.40) mid-3nd century BC Fratarakā dynasty Governor of the Seleucid Empire 4 Vādfradād I (wtprdt) 3nd century BC Fratarakā dynasty - son of Vahbarz Governor of the Seleucid Empire 5 Vadfradad II c. 140 BC Fratarakā dynasty Governor of the Seleucid Empire. Transition period. Eagle emblem on top of stylized kyrbasia. Aramaic coin legend wtprdt [p]rtrk’ zy ’ly’ (“Vādfradād, frataraka of the gods”). 6 ‘Unknown king I’ (Syknlt?) 2nd half of 2nd century BC ? Transition period. No inscription Kings of Persis Main article: Kings of Persis Name Date Coinage Family Relations Note 7 Darev I 2nd century BC (end) ? Darev I and his successors were sub-kings of the Parthian Empire. Crescent emblem on top of stylized kyrbasia. Aramaic coin legend d’ryw mlk (𐡃‬𐡀𐡓𐡉‬‬𐡅‬ 𐡌𐡋‬𐡊‬, "King Darius").[5] 8 Vadfradad III 1st century BC (1st half) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire. Coin legend wtprdt mlk (𐡅‬𐡕‬𐡐‬𐡓‬𐡃‬𐡕 𐡌‬𐡋𐡊‬, "King Vadfradad") in Aramaic script. 9 Darev II 1st century BC son of Vadfradad III Sub-king of the Parthian Empire. Aramaic coin legend d’ryw mlk brh wtprdt mlk’ ("King Darius, son of King Vadfradad"). 10 Ardashir II 1st century BC (2nd half) son of Darev II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire. Killed by his brother Vahshir I 11 Vahšīr/ Vahshir I (Oxathres) 1st century BC (2nd half) son of Darev II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 12 Pakor I 1st century CE (1st half) son of Vahshir I Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 13 Pakor II 1st century CE (1st half) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 14 Nambed 1st century CE (mid) son of Ardashir II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 15 Napad 1st century CE (2nd half) son of Nambed Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 16 ‘Unknown king II’ 1st century CE (end) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 17 Vadfradad IV 2nd century CE (1st half) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 18 Manchihr I 2nd century CE (1st half) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 19 Ardashir III 2nd century CE (1st half) son of Manchihr I Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 20 Manchihr II 2nd century CE (mid) son of Ardashir III Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 21 Uncertain King III/ tentatively Pakor III 2nd century CE (2nd half) ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 22 Manchihr III 2nd century CE (2nd half) son of Manchihr II Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 23 Ardashir IV 2nd century CE (end) son of Manchihr III Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 24 Vahshir II (Oxathres) c. 206-210 CE ? Sub-king of the Parthian Empire. The last of Bazarangids. 25 Shapur 3rd century CE (beg.) Brother of the first Sasanian, Ardashir I Sub-king of the Parthian Empire 26 Ardashir V (Sasanian Dynasty Ardashir I) 3rd century CE (beg.) First Sasanian ruler, under the name of Ardashir I Sub-king of the Parthian Empire Parthian Empire (247 BC – CE 228) Main article: Parthian Empire The Seleucid dynasty gradually lost control of Persia. In 253, the Arsacid dynasty established itself in Parthia. The Parthians gradually expanded their control, until by the mid-2nd century BC, the Seleucids had completely lost control of Persia. Control of eastern territories was permanently lost by Antiochus VII in 129 BC. For more comprehensive lists of kings, queens, sub-kings and sub-queens of this Era see: . List of rulers of Parthian sub-ki..
  7. Title: Wikiwand: Darius the Great
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Darius_the_Great;
    Note: Darius I (Old Persian: "Dārayava(h)uš," New Persian: "داریوش‎ Dāryuš"; Hebrew: "דָּרְיָוֶשׁ," Modern: "Darəyaveš,} Tiberian: "Dāryāwéš"; c. 550–486 BCE), commonly known as Darius the Great, was the fourth Persian King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire. He ruled the empire at its peak, when it included much of West Asia, the Caucasus, parts of the Balkans (Thrace-Macedonia, and Paeonia), most of the Black Sea coastal regions, parts of the North Caucasus, Central Asia, as far as the Indus Valley in the far east and portions of north and northeast Africa including Egypt (Mudrâya), eastern Libya, and coastal Sudan. Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing Gaumata, a claimed usurper. The new king met with rebellions throughout his kingdom and quelled them each time. A major event in Darius's life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt and subjugate Greece. Although ultimately ending in failure at the Battle of Marathon, Darius succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace, expansion of the empire through the conquest of Macedon, the Cyclades and the island of Naxos and the sacking of the city of Eretria. Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He organized Achaemenid coinage as a new uniform monetary system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire. He also put the empire in better standing by building roads and introducing standard weights and measures. Through these changes, the empire was centralized and unified. Darius also worked on construction projects throughout the empire, focusing on Susa, Pasargadae, Persepolis, Babylon, and Egypt. He had the cliff-face Behistun Inscription carved to record his conquests, an important testimony of the Old Persian language. Darius is mentioned in the biblical books of Haggai, Zechariah, and Ezra–Nehemiah. Etymology Main article: Darius (given name) Dārīus and Dārēus are the Latin forms of the Greek "Dareîos" ("Δαρεῖος"), itself from Old Persian "Dārayauš" ("𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎢𐏁"; "d-a-r-y-uš"), which is a shortened form of "Dārayavaʰuš" ("𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁," "d-a-r-y-v-u-š"). The longer form is also seen to have been reflected in the Elamite "Da-ri-(y)a-ma-u-iš," Babylonian "Da-(a-)ri-ia-(a-)muš," Aramaic "drywhwš "("𐡃𐡓𐡉𐡅𐡄𐡅𐡔"), and possibly the longer Greek form "Dareiaîos" ("Δαρειαῖος"). The name is a nominative form meaning "he who holds firm the good(ness)," which can be seen by the first part "dāraya," meaning "holder," and the adverb "vau," meaning "goodness." Primary sources See also: Behistun Inscription, DNa inscription, and Herodotus At some time between his coronation and his death, Darius left a trilingual monumental relief on Mount Behistun, which was written in Elamite, Old Persian and Babylonian. The inscription begins with a brief autobiography including his ancestry and lineage. To aid the presentation of his ancestry, Darius wrote down the sequence of events that occurred after the death of Cyrus the Great. Darius mentions several times that he is the rightful king by the grace of the supreme deity Ahura Mazda. In addition, further texts and monuments from Persepolis have been found, as well as a clay tablet containing an Old Persian cuneiform of Darius from Gherla, Romania (Harmatta) and a letter from Darius to Gadates, preserved in a Greek text of the Roman period. In the foundation tablets of Apadana Palace, Darius described in Old Persian cuneiform the extent of his Empire in broad geographical terms: "Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia to Kush, and from Sind (Old Persian: 𐏃𐎡𐎭𐎢𐎺, 'Hidauv,' locative of 'Hiduš.' i.e., 'Indus valley') to Lydia (Old Persian: 'Spardâ') - [this is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me. May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house!" — "DPh inscription of Darius I in the foundations of the Apadana Palace" Herodotus, a Greek historian and author of "The Histories," provided an account of many Persian kings and the Greco-Persian Wars. He wrote extensively on Darius, spanning half of Book 3 along with Books 4, 5 and 6. It begins with the removal of the alleged usurper Gaumata and continues to the end of Darius's reign. Early life Darius was the eldest of five sons to Hystaspes and Rhodogune in 550 BCE. Hystaspes was a leading figure of authority in Persia, which was the homeland of the Persians. The Behistun Inscription of Darius states that his father was satrap of Bactria in 522 BCE. According to Herodotus, Hystaspes was the satrap of Persis, although the French Iranologist Pierre Briant state that this is an error. Also according to Herodotus (III.139), Darius, prior to seizing power and "of no consequence at the time," had served as a spearman ("doryphoros") in the Egyptian campaign (528–525 BCE) of Cambyses II, then the Persian Great King; this is often interpreted to mean he was the king's personal spear-carrier, an important role. Hystaspes was an officer in Cyrus' army and a noble of his court. Before Cyrus and his army crossed the Aras River to battle with the Armenians, he installed his son Cambyses II as king in case he should not return from battle. However, once Cyrus had crossed the Aras River, he had a vision in which Darius had wings atop his shoulders and stood upon the confines of Europe and Asia (the known world). When Cyrus awoke from the dream, he inferred it as a great danger to the future security of the empire, as it meant that Darius would one day rule the whole world. However, his son Cambyses was the heir to the throne, not Darius, causing Cyrus to wonder if Darius was forming treasonable and ambitious designs. This led Cyrus to order Hystaspes to go back to Persis and watch over his son strictly, until Cyrus himself returned. Darius did not seem to have any treasonous thoughts as Cambyses II ascended the throne peacefully; and, through promotion, Darius was eventually elevated to be Cambyses' personal lancer. Accession There are different accounts of the rise of Darius to the throne from both Darius himself and Greek historians. The oldest records report a convoluted sequence of events in which Cambyses II lost his mind, murdered his brother Bardiya, and was killed by an infected leg wound. After this, Darius and a group of six nobles traveled to Sikayauvati to kill an usurper, Gaumata, who had taken the throne by pretending to be Bardiya during the true king's absence. Many modern historians believe that Gaumata was in fact the true heir Bardiya, with the historical account being altered by Darius to make the coup d'état appear more legitimate. Darius's account, written at the Behistun Inscription, states that Cambyses II killed his own brother Bardiya, but that this murder was not known among the Iranian people. A would-be usurper named Gaumata came and lied to the people, stating he was Bardiya. The Iranians had grown rebellious against Cambyses's rule and on 11 March 522 BCE a revolt against Cambyses broke out in his absence. On 1 July, the Iranian people chose to be under the leadership of Gaumata, as "Bardiya." No member of the Achaemenid family would rise against Gaumata for the safety of their own life. Darius, who had served Cambyses as his lance-bearer until the deposed ruler's death, prayed for aid and in September 522 BCE, along with Otanes, Intaphrenes, Gobryas, Hydarnes, Megabyzus and Aspathines, killed Gaumata in the fortress of Sikayauvati. Herodotus provides a dubious account of Darius's ascension: Several days after Gaumata had been assassinated, Darius and the other six nobles discussed the fate of the empire. At first, the seven discussed the form of government; a democratic republic ("Isonomia") was strongly pushed by Otanes, an oligarchy was pushed by Megabyzus, while Darius pushed for a monarchy. After stating that a republic would lead to corruption and internal fighting, while a monarchy would be led with a single-mindedness not possible in other governments, Darius was able to convince the other nobles. To decide who would become the monarch, six of them decided on a test, with Otanes abstaining, as he had no interest in being king. They were to gather outside the palace, mounted on their horses at sunrise, and the man whose horse neighed first in recognition of the rising sun would become king. According to Herodotus, Darius had a slave, Oebares, who rubbed his hand over the genitals of a mare that Darius's horse favored. When the six gathered, Oebares placed his hands beside the nostrils of Darius' horse, who became excited at the scent and neighed. This was followed by lightning and thunder, leading the others to dismount and kneel before Darius in recognition of his apparent divine providence. In this account, Darius himself claimed that he achieved the throne not through fraud, but cunning, even erecting a statue of himself mounted on his neighing horse with the inscription: "Darius, son of Hystaspes, obtained the sovereignty of Persia by the sagacity of his horse and the ingenious contrivance of Oebares, his groom." According to the accounts of Greek historians, Cambyses II had left Patizeithes in charge of the kingdom when he headed for Egypt. He later sent Prexaspes to murder Bardiya. After the killing, Patizeithes put his brother Gaumata, a Magian who resembled Bardiya, on the throne and declared him the Great King. Otanes discovered that Gaumata was an impostor, and along with six other Iranian nobles including Darius, created a plan to oust the pseudo-Bardiya. After killing the impostor along with his brother Patizeithes and other Magians, Darius was crowned king the following morning. Early reign Early revolts Following his coronation at Pasargadae, Darius moved to Ecbatana. He soon learned that support for Bardiya was strong, and revolts in Elam and Babylonia had broken..
  8. Title: Wikiwand: Behistun Inscription
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Behistun_Inscription;
    Note: The Behistun Inscription (also Bisotun, Bistun or Bisutun; Persian: بیستون‎, Old Persian: Bagastana, meaning "the place of god") is a multilingual inscription and large rock relief on a cliff at Mount Behistun in the Kermanshah Province of Iran, near the city of Kermanshah in western Iran, established by Darius the Great (r. 522–486 BC). It was crucial to the decipherment of cuneiform script as the inscription includes three versions of the same text, written in three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian (a variety of Akkadian). The inscription is to cuneiform what the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian hieroglyphs: the document most crucial in the decipherment of a previously lost script.
  9. Title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 7: Darius
    Author: This page was last edited on 9 May 2017, at 17:21.
    Publication: Name: https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Darius;
    Note: DARIUS (Pers. Dārayavaush; Old Test. "Daryavesh"), the name of three Persian kings. 1. Darius the Great, the son of Hystaspes (q.v.). The principal source for his history is his own inscriptions, especially the great inscription of Behistun (q.v.), in which he relates how he gained the crown and put down the rebellions. In modern times his veracity has often been doubted, but without any sufficient reason; the whole tenor of his words shows that we can rely upon his account. The accounts given by Herodotus and Ctesias of his accession are in many points evidently dependent on this official version, with many legendary stories interwoven, e.g. that Darius and his allies left the question as to which of them should become king to the decision of their horses, and that Darius won the crown by a trick of his groom. Darius belonged to a younger branch of the royal family of the Achaemenidae. When, after the suicide of Cambyses (March 521), the usurper Gaumata ruled undisturbed over the whole empire under the name of Bardiya (Smerdis), son of Cyrus, and no one dared to gainsay him, Darius, “with the help of Ahuramazda,” attempted to regain the kingdom for the royal race. His father Hystaspes was still alive, but evidently had not the courage to urge his claims. Assisted by six noble Persians, whose names he proclaims at the end of the Behistun inscription, he surprised and killed the usurper in a Median fortress (October 521; for the chronology of these times cf. E. Meyer, "Forschungen zur alten Geschichte," ii. 472 ff.), and gained the crown. But this sudden change was the signal for an attempt on the part of all the eastern provinces to regain their independence. In Susiana, Babylon, Media, Sagartia, Margiana, usurpers arose, pretending to be of the old royal race, and gathered large armies around them; in Persia itself Vahyazdāta imitated the example of Gaumata and was acknowledged by the majority of the people as the true Bardiya. Darius with only a small army of Persians and Medes and some trustworthy generals overcame all difficulties, and in 520 and 519 all the rebellions were put down (Babylon rebelled twice, Susiana even three times), and the authority of Darius was established throughout the empire. Darius in his inscriptions appears as a fervent believer in the true religion of Zoroaster. But he was also a great statesman and organizer. The time of conquests had come to an end; the wars which Darius undertook, like those of Augustus, only served the purpose of gaining strong natural frontiers for the empire and keeping down the barbarous tribes on its borders. Thus Darius subjugated the wild nations of the Pontic and Armenian mountains, and extended the Persian dominion to the Caucasus; for the same reasons he fought against the Sacae and other Turanian tribes. But by the organization which he gave to the empire he became the true successor of the great Cyrus. His organization of the provinces and the fixing of the tributes is described by Herodotus iii. 90 ff., evidently from good official sources. He fixed the coinage and introduced the gold coinage of the Daric (which is not named after him, as the Greeks believed, but derived from a Persian word meaning “gold”; in Middle Persian it is called zarīg). He tried to develop the commerce of the empire, and sent an expedition down the Kabul and the Indus, led by the Carian captain Scylax of Caryanda, who explored the Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. He dug a canal from the Nile to Suez, and, as the fragments of a hieroglyphic inscription found there show, his ships sailed from the Nile through the Red Sea by Saba to Persia. He had connexions with Carthage (i.e. the Karkā of the Nakshi Rustam inscr.), and explored the shores of Sicily and Italy. At the same time he attempted to gain the good-will of the subject nations, and for this purpose promoted the aims of their priests. He allowed the Jews to build the Temple of Jerusalem. In Egypt his name appears on the temples which he built in Memphis, Edfu and the Great Oasis. He called the high-priest of Saïs, Uzahor, to Susa (as we learn from his inscription in the Vatican), and gave him full powers to reorganize the “house of life,” the great medical school of the temple of Saïs. In the Egyptian traditions he is considered as one of the great benefactors and lawgivers of the country (Herod. ii. 110, Diod. i. 95). In similar relations he stood to the Greek sanctuaries (cf. his rescript to “his slave” Godatas, the inspector of a royal park near Magnesia, on the Maeander, in which he grants freedom of taxes and forced labour to the sacred territory of Apollo. See Cousin and Deschamps, "Bulletin" de corresp. hellén., "xiii. (1889), 529, and Dittenberger," Sylloge inscr. graec., 2); "all the Greek oracles in Asia Minor and Europe" therefore stood on the side of Persia in the Persian wars and admonished the Greeks to attempt no resistance. About 512 Darius undertook a war against the Scythians. A great army crossed the Bosporus, subjugated eastern Thrace, and crossed the Danube. The purpose of this war can only have been to attack the nomadic Turanian tribes in the rear and thus to secure peace on the northern frontier of the empire. It was based upon a wrong geographical conception; even Alexander and his Macedonians believed that on the Hindu Kush (which they called Caucasus) and on the shores of the Jaxartes (which they called Tanais, i.e. Don) they were quite near to the Black Sea. Of course the expedition undertaken on these grounds could not but prove a failure; having advanced for some weeks into the Russian steppes, Darius was forced to return. The details given by Herodotus (according to him Darius had reached the Volga!) are quite fantastical; and the account which Darius himself had given on a tablet, which was added to his great inscription in Behistun, is destroyed with the exception of a few words. (See R. W. Macan, "Herodotus," vol. ii. appendix 3; G. B. Grundy, "Great Persian War, pp. 48-64; J. B. Bury in" Classical Review, "July 1897.") Although European Greece was intimately connected with the coasts of Asia Minor, and the opposing parties in the Greek towns were continually soliciting his intervention, Darius did not meddle with their affairs. The Persian wars were begun by the Greeks themselves. The support which Athens and Eretria gave to the rebellious Ionians and Carians made their punishment inevitable as soon as the rebellion had been put down. But the first expedition, that of Mardonius, failed on the cliffs of Mt. Athos (492), and the army which was led into Attica by Datis in 490 was beaten at Marathon. Before Darius had finished his preparations for a third expedition an insurrection broke out in Egypt (486). In the next year Darius died, probably in October 485, after a reign of thirty-six years. He is one of the greatest rulers the east has produced. 2. Darius II., Ochus. Artaxerxes I., who died in the beginning of 424, was followed by his son Xerxes II. But after a month and a half he was murdered by his brother Secydianus, or Sogdianus (the form of the name is uncertain). Against him rose a bastard brother, Ochus, satrap of Hyrcania, and after a short fight killed him, and suppressed by treachery the attempt of his own brother Arsites to imitate his example (Ctesias ap. Phot. 44; Diod. xii. 71, 108; Pausan. vi. 5, 7). Ochus adopted the name Darius (in the chronicles called "Nothos," the bastard). Neither Xerxes II. nor Secydianus occurs in the dates of the numerous Babylonian tablets from Nippur; here the dates of Darius II. follow immediately on those of Artaxerxes I. Of Darius II.’s reign we know very little (a rebellion of the Medes in 409 is mentioned in Xenophon, "Hellen". i. 2. 19), except that he was quite dependent on his wife Parysatis. In the excerpts from Ctesias some harem intrigues are recorded, in which he played a disreputable part. As long as the power of Athens remained intact he did not meddle in Greek affairs; even the support which the Athenians in 413 gave to the rebel Amorges in Caria would not have roused him (Andoc. iii. 29; Thuc. viii. 28, 54; Ctesias wrongly names his father Pissuthnes in his stead; an account of these wars is contained in the great Lycian stele from Xanthus in the British Museum), had not the Athenian power broken down in the same year before Syracuse. He gave orders to his satraps in Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, to send in the overdue tribute of the Greek towns, and to begin war with Athens; for this purpose they entered into an alliance with Sparta. In 408 he sent his son Cyrus to Asia Minor, to carry on the war with greater energy. In 404 he died after a reign of nineteen years, and was followed by Artaxerxes II. 3. Darius III., Codomannus. The eunuch Bagoas (q.v.), having murdered Artaxerxes III. in 338 and his son Arses in 336, raised to the throne a distant relative of the royal house, whose name, according to Justin x. 3, was Codomannus, and who had excelled in a war against the Cadusians (cf. Diod. xvii. 5 ff., where his father is called Arsames, son of Ostanes, a brother of Artaxerxes). The new king, who adopted the name of Darius, took warning by the fate of his predecessors, and saved himself from it by forcing Bagoas to drink the cup himself. Already in 336 Philip II. of Macedon had sent an army into Asia Minor, and in the spring of 334 the campaign of Alexander began. In the following year Darius himself took the field against the Macedonian king, but was beaten at Issus and in 331 at Arbela. In his flight to the east he was deposed and killed by Bessus (July 330). The name Darius was also borne by many later dynasts of Persian origin, among them kings of Persis (q.v.), Darius of Media Atropatene who was defeated by Pompeius, and Darius, king of Pontus in the time of Antony.
  10. Title: Geni:
    Publication: Name: https://www.geni.com/people/Darius-I-the-Great-King-of-Persia/6000000006131567298;
  11. Title: Genealogieonline:
    Publication: Name: https://www.genealogieonline.nl/en/stamboom-homs/I6000000006131567298.php;
  12. Title: Wikiwand: Ancient Greece
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Ancient_Greece;
    Note: Ancient Greece (Greek: "Ἑλλάς," romanized: "Hellás") was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (c. AD 600). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the Archaic period and colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedon, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. The Hellenistic period came to an end with the conquests and annexations of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, which established the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece, and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on ancient Rome, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe. For this reason, Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Greek culture gave great importance to knowledge. Science and religion were not separate and getting closer to the truth meant getting closer to the gods. In this context, they understood the importance of mathematics as an instrument for obtaining more reliable ("divine") knowledge. Greek culture, in a few centuries and with a limited population, managed to explore and make progress in many fields of science, mathematics, philosophy and knowledge in general. Chronology Further information: Timeline of ancient Greece Classical antiquity in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC (around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer) and ended in the 6th century AD. Classical antiquity in Greece was preceded by the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1200 – c. 800 BC), archaeologically characterized by the protogeometric and geometric styles of designs on pottery. Following the Dark Ages was the Archaic Period, beginning around the 8th century BC. The Archaic Period saw early developments in Greek culture and society which formed the basis for the Classical Period. After the Archaic Period, the Classical Period in Greece is conventionally considered to have lasted from the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 until the death of Alexander the Great in 323. The period is characterized by a style which was considered by later observers to be exemplary, i.e., "classical," as shown in the Parthenon, for instance. Politically, the Classical Period was dominated by Athens and the Delian League during the 5th century, but displaced by Spartan hegemony during the early 4th century BC, before power shifted to Thebes and the Boeotian League and finally to the League of Corinth led by Macedon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon. Following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period (323–146 BC), during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest. Roman Greece is usually considered to be the period between Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC and the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in AD 330. Finally, Late Antiquity refers to the period of Christianization during the later 4th to early 6th centuries AD, sometimes taken to be complete with the closure of the Academy of Athens by Justinian I in 529. Historiography Main article: Greek historiographers The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in proper historiography, while earlier ancient history or proto-history is known by much more circumstantial evidence, such as annals or king lists, and pragmatic epigraphy. Herodotus is widely known as the "father of history": his "Histories" are eponymous of the entire field. Written between the 450s and 420s BC, Herodotus' work reaches about a century into the past, discussing 6th century historical figures such as Darius I of Persia, Cambyses II and Psamtik III, and alluding to some 8th century ones such as Candaules. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato and Aristotle. Most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is further limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic and social history. History Further information: History of Greece Archaic period Main article: Archaic period in Greece In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. Objects with Phoenician writing on them may have been available in Greece from the 9th century BC, but the earliest evidence of Greek writing comes from graffiti on Greek pottery from the mid-8th century. Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities, a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography: every island, valley and plain is cut off from its neighbors by the sea or mountain ranges. The Lelantine War (c. 710 – c. 650 BC) is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period. It was fought between the important "poleis" (city-states) of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, though Chalcis was the nominal victor. A mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC. This seems to have introduced tension to many city-states. The aristocratic regimes which generally governed the "poleis" were threatened by the new-found wealth of merchants, who in turn desired political power. From 650 BC onward, the aristocracies had to fight not to be overthrown and replaced by populist tyrants. A growing population and a shortage of land also seem to have created internal strife between the poor and the rich in many city-states. In Sparta, the Messenian Wars resulted in the conquest of Messenia and enserfment of the Messenians, beginning in the latter half of the 8th century BC, an act without precedent in ancient Greece. This practice allowed a social revolution to occur. The subjugated population, thenceforth known as helots, farmed and labored for Sparta, whilst every Spartan male citizen became a soldier of the Spartan Army in a permanently militarized state. Even the elite were obliged to live and train as soldiers; this commonality between rich and poor citizens served to defuse the social conflict. These reforms, attributed to Lycurgus of Sparta, were probably complete by 650 BC. Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century BC, again resulting in civil strife. The Archon (chief magistrate) Draco made severe reforms to the law code in 621 BC (hence "draconian"), but these failed to quell the conflict. Eventually the moderate reforms of Solon (594 BC), improving the lot of the poor but firmly entrenching the aristocracy in power, gave Athens some stability. By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well. Rapidly increasing population in the 8th and 7th centuries BC had resulted in emigration of many Greeks to form colonies in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily), Asia Minor and further afield. The emigration effectively ceased in the 6th century BC by which time the Greek world had, culturally and linguistically, become much larger than the area of present-day Greece. Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities, although they often retained religious and commercial links with them. The emigration process also determined a long series of conflicts between the Greek cities of Sicily, especially Syracuse, and the Carthaginians. These conflicts lasted from 600 BC to 265 BC when the Roman Republic entered into an alliance with the Mamertines to fend off the hostilities by the new tyrant of Syracuse, Hiero II and then the Carthaginians. This way Rome became the new dominant power against the fading strength of the Sicilian Greek cities and the Carthaginian supremacy in the region. One year later the First Punic War erupted. In this period, there was huge economic development in Greece, and also in its overseas colonies which experienced a growth in commerce and manufacturing. There was a great improvement in the living standards of the population. Some studies estimate that the average size of the Greek household, in the period from 800 BC to 300 BC, increased five times, which indicates a large increase in the average income of the population. In the second half of the 6th century BC, Athens fell under the tyranny of Peisistratos and then of his sons Hippias and Hipparchos. However, in 510 BC, at the instigation of the Athenian aristocrat Cleisthenes, the Spartan king Cleomenes I helped the Athenians overthrow the tyranny. Afterwards, Sparta and Athens promptly turned on each other, at which point Cleomenes I installed Isagoras as a pro-Spartan archon. Eager to prevent Athens f..
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