Senusret Khakheperre 4th Pharaoh 12th Dynasty II

• Preferred Name: Senusret Khakheperre 4th Pharaoh 12th Dynasty II^{[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27]}
  
• Alternate Name: Khakheperre Senusret II
  
• Gender: M
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: 4th Pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty of EgyptBET 1895 BC AND 1878 BC with note: -- Wikiwand: Senusret II -- Wikiwand: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
  
• Death: 1878 BC in Egypt at LATI: N7 LONG: E0
  
• FSID: GQ8P-CQF
  
• Birth: 1922 BC in Egypt at LATI: N7 LONG: E0
  

1. Senusret III Khakaure 5th Pharaoh 12th Dynasty, b. 1899 BC in Egypt     d. 1839 BC
2. Khenemetneferhedjet King's Wife II,    

1. Title: Wikiwand: Khnumhotep II
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Khnumhotep_II;
   Note: Khnumhotep II ("ẖnmw-ḥtp," "Khnum is pleased") was an ancient Egyptian "Great Chief of the Oryx nome" (the 16th nome of Upper Egypt) during the reign of pharaohs Amenemhat II and Senusret II of the 12th Dynasty, Middle Kingdom (20th century BCE). He is well known for his tomb at Beni Hasan and its decorations. Biography and family He was a member of a powerful family of nomarchs and officials that likely was founded by his grandfather Khnumhotep I and housed in Men'at Khufu. Khnumhotep II held many titles such as "hereditary prince and count," "foremost of actions," "royal sealer," "sole friend," "member of the elite," "overlord of Nekheb," and also "overseer of the Eastern Desert," a position he held from Year 19 of Amenemhat II until at least Year 6 of Senusret II, i.e., the date that appears in Khnumhotep's tomb. Like most nomarchs of the time he also held some priestly charges. His predecessor as nomarch probably was his relative Netjernakht, and Khnumhotep honored him by building his tomb. His mother was Baqet, while his father was an official named Neheri. Khnumhotep had two wives, the main of them was Khety, herself a daughter of the unnamed nomarch of the neighboring 17th nome with Hardai as capital. Like her husband, Khety held a remarkable number of titles such as "daughter of a governor," "king's acquaintance," "foremost of actions," "lady of the house," and also was a priestess of Hathor and Pakhet. Khnumhotep's secondary wife was Tjat who held few, modest titles such as "sealer," "lady of the house" and "one who knows her lord"; she is the only known female sealer at the court of a local governor. Those peculiarities and the fact that both consorts appear several times in Khnumhotep's tomb suggests that the one between him and Khety likely was a politically arranged marriage while Tjat could have been his true love who was appointed sealer by him in order to have her closer. From his two consorts, Khnumhotep II had several children: . Nakht inherited his maternal grandfather's charge of nomarch at Hardai . Khnumhotep IV, followed his father as nomarch of the 16th nome, but does not appear in his father's tomb and is only known by his unfinished tomb at Beni Hasan . Khnumhotep III entered to the royal court where he managed to become high steward and later vizier . Neheri was buried in a small tomb at Beni Hasan where a stela of him was found . another son is known for being a "mayor" in a contiguous nome. For more about Khnumhotep's genealogy, see "Nomarchs of the Oryx nome." The tomb BH3 Khnumhotep II is buried in Beni Hasan in the rock-cut Tomb 3 (BH3), one of the most notable of the whole necropolis. In ancient times, the tomb would have been approached via a path that was distinguishable by dark brown boulders on either side; the path extended from the open outer court down the hill to the edge of the cultivated land. The tomb is fronted by a columned portico and a small courtyard; the courtyard would have been surrounded by mud-brick walls. The small columned portico is on the west side of the courtyard, directly in front of the tomb entrance. The ceiling of the portico is curved similar to the shape of a segmented barrel. The rock around the doorway leading inside the tomb to the chapel was smoothed and flattened, on which a fourteen line inscription is giving the list of the festal days for the services of funeral offerings, called percheru, along with the name and titles of Khnumhotep II. The floor of the main chamber (also referred to as the chapel) is sunk into the ground below the level of the open outer court and is descended into by three steps. The chapel is the main chamber cut straight back into the cliff almost symmetrical with 4 columns and two large shafts (that lead to burial chambers) are cut into the floor. These four main columns support a ceiling that is divided by three segmented barrel shapes. These vaults are painted in a pattern that may be referencing a tent. The only light for this chamber would have come from the doorway to the portico and originally a door, between the portico and the chamber, could have been used to close the tomb to the outdoor elements. Percy Newberry notes that the only remain from the inward swinging door is the pivot-hole. On the doorjambs are prayers to Osiris and Anubis above a seated Khnumhotep II who is facing inward. At the back of this main room (east wall) is a small rectangular shine approached by a step about 13 centimetres (5.1 in) high. Newberry mentions that from his survey of the tomb there was a statue here of a seated Khnumhotep II, but the entire statue had been cut away and only a portion of the seat remains. In the main chamber there is an autobiography of the deceased; it begins to the left of the entrance to the shrine and runs counterclockwise around the walls of the main chamber, ending to the right of the doorway leading to the shrine. The main types of information included are about the actions Khnumhotep II performed during his lifetime, his family and their lives, as well as the close relationship of his family to the royal house, Khnumhotep’s excellent character, and his request to visitors that offerings are made to him. On the west wall of the chamber are scenes showing mainly the preparations for the funeral and the resurrection of the deceased. This is exemplified by the boat voyages making a connection between Khnumhotep II and the god Osiris. The orientation of the boats within the tomb literally has them travel south to Abydos (right of the entrance) and north to return (left of the entrance). The wall collectively ensures the tomb owner of rebirth in the afterlife where he will be sustained through cult activities. On the eastern end of the north wall there is a large-scale standing figure of Khnumhotep II receiving offerings primarily of several types of animals and birds. What makes this tomb stand out among the 39 large rock-cut tombs at Beni Hasan is the well known scene of the Aamu group, Asiatic nomadic traders who are sometimes considered Hyksos or at least their forerunners; the group, led by a man called Absha (or Abisha, Abishai), was bringing offerings to the deceased. The west end of the wall has another large-scale figure of Khnumhotep II only here he is facing right and using a bow to hunt in the desert which is on the edge of the Egyptian world, the boundary between order ("maat") and chaos. It has been interpreted that in this scene Khnumhotep II is assuming the role of the king dominating over the chaotic power of the desert. The east wall houses the entrance to the shrine, as well as two large depictions of Khnumhotep II hunting in the marshes, one on the north side and the other on the south side. To the south he is harpooning two fishes and to the north he is fowling with a throwing stick. These hunting in the marshes scenes help protect the deceased in the afterlife as well as guarantee his rebirth through connotations of sexuality. Beneath him, north of the door, there are pictures of several people fishing and beneath him on the south side are representations of fighting boatmen. Collectively this wall represents the perpetual renewal of Khnumhotep II. The fourth wall of this tomb, south wall, was dedicated to the celebration of the cult meal of Khnumhotep II and his wife Khety. The east end of the wall features the deceased seated in front of an offering table covered with offerings holding a flail, traditionally seen as a symbol of royalty or divinity, in his right hand. At the west end of the wall there is an illustration of Khety sitting in front of a full offering table. She is facing left and participating in her husband’s meal presented by his cult. The shrine portrays a smaller version of the offering cult and in many ways can be seen as an expansion from the false door of the Old Kingdom, where a statue inside a niche could have been integrated. The placing of statues in the chapel itself is a new funerary art style that appeared in the Middle Kingdom tombs.
   
2. Title: Wikiwand: Peter A. Clayton
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Peter_A._Clayton;
   Note: Peter A. Clayton is a British archaeologist and numismatist, and the former managing editor of British Museum Publications. Clayton has written extensively on the ancient world and ancient Egypt in particular and has produced a number of books for children. Clayton is a member of the British government's Treasure Valuation Committee. Selected publications . "Chronicle of the Pharaohs." Thames & Hudson, London. . "Archaeological sites in Britain." Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1976. ISBN 0297771159 . "The rediscovery of Ancient Egypt: Artists and travellers in the Nineteenth Century." Thames & Hudson, London, 1982. ISBN 0500012849 . "The seven wonders of the ancient world." 1990. . "The Valley of the Kings." Wayland, 1995. ISBN 0750214317
   
3. Title: Wikiwand: Lake Moeris
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Lake_Moeris;
   Note: Lake Moeris (Ancient Greek: "Μοῖρις," genitive "Μοίριδος") is an ancient lake in the northwest of the Faiyum Oasis, 80 km (50 mi) southwest of Cairo, Egypt. In prehistory, it was a freshwater lake, with an area estimated to vary between 1,270 km² (490 mi²) and 1,700 km² (656 mi²). It persists today as a smaller saltwater lake called "Birket Qarun." The lake's surface is 43 m (140 ft) below sea-level, and covers about 202 square kilometers (78 sq mi). The lake and surrounding area is a protected area and has been designated as a Ramsar site since 2012. It is a source for tilapia and other fish from the local area. The prehistoric mammal "Moeritherium" was found in this area. History When the Mediterranean Sea was a hot dry hollow near the end of the Messinian Salinity Crisis in the late Miocene, Faiyum was a dry hollow, and the Nile flowed past it at the bottom of a canyon (2,400 m deep or more where Cairo is now). After the Mediterranean reflooded at the end of the Miocene, the Nile canyon became an arm of the sea reaching inland farther than Aswan. Over geological time that sea arm gradually filled with silt and became the Nile valley. Eventually, the Nile valley bed silted up high enough to let the flooding Nile overflow into the Faiyum hollow, making a lake in it. The lake is first recorded from about 3000 BC, around the time of Menes (Narmer); however, for the most part it would only be filled with high flood waters. The lake was bordered by neolithic settlements, and the town of Shedet grew up on the south where the higher ground created a ridge. In 2300 BC, the waterway from the Nile to the natural lake was widened and deepened to make a canal that now is known as the Bahr Yussef. This project was started by Amenemhat III or perhaps by his father Senusret III. This canal fed into the lake. This was meant to serve three purposes: control the flooding of the Nile, regulate the water level of the Nile during dry seasons, and serve the surrounding area with irrigation. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty using the natural lake of Faiyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry periods. At the lake there are the remainders of the eldest known paved road in the world, the Lake Moeris Quarry Road, that helped transport basalt blocks from a quarry nearby to the lake, from where they could be shipped to the Giza Necropolis. The American Society of Civil Engineers has entered it into its List of Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks. The immense waterworks undertaken by the ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty to transform the lake into a huge water reservoir gave the impression that the lake was an artificial excavation, as reported by geographers and travelers during classical times. The lake was eventually abandoned due to the nearest branch of the Nile shrinking from 230 BC. Etymology The name Moeris is a Greek version (reformed as if from Greek Μοῖραι "the Fates") from Egyptian mer-wer ‘great canal’. Amenemhat III, who started this project, was also known as Moeris. In ancient Egypt, the lake was also variously called "the lake," "pure lake," and "Osiris’ lake." During the Middle Kingdom, the whole area around the lake was often referred to as mer-wer as well. Similarly, the Late Egyptian word Piom "sea’ "originally restricted to Lake Moeris, came to be used to refer to the city of Crocodilopolis (mod. Faiyum), then to the entire region in later times.
   
4. Title: Wikiwand: Faiyum
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Faiyum;
   Note: Faiyum (Arabic: الفيوم‎, "el-Fayyūm," pronounced [elfæjˈjuːm], borrowed from Coptic: " ̀Ⲫⲓⲟⲙ"or "Ⲫⲓⲱⲙ Phiom" or "Phiōm" from Ancient Egyptian: "pꜣ ym," "the Sea, Lake") is a city in Middle Egypt. Located 100 kilometres (62 miles) southwest of Cairo, in the Faiyum Oasis, it is the capital of the modern Faiyum Governorate. Originally called Shedet in Egyptian, the Greeks called it Koinē Greek: Κροκοδειλόπολις, romanized: "Krokodilópolis," and later Byzantine Greek: Ἀρσινόη, romanized: "Arsinoë." It is one of Egypt's oldest cities due to its strategic location. Name and etymology Its name in English is also spelled as Fayum, Faiyum or Al Faiyūm. Faiyum was previously officially named Madīnet Al Faiyūm (Arabic for "The City of Faiyum"). The name Faiyum (and its spelling variations) may also refer to the Faiyum Oasis, although it is commonly used by Egyptians today to refer to the city. The modern name of the city comes from Coptic ̀Ⲫⲓⲟⲙ /Ⲡⲉⲓⲟⲙ, "epʰiom/peiom" (whence the proper name Ⲡⲁⲓⲟⲙ, "payom"), meaning "the Sea" or "the Lake," which in turn comes from late Egyptian "pꜣ-ym" of the same meaning, a reference to the nearby Lake Moeris; the extinct elephant ancestor "Phiomia" was named after it. Ancient history "Crocodilopolis" redirects here. For the namesake cities in Upper Egypt and Paralia, see Crocodilopolis (disambiguation). Archaeological evidence has found occupations around the Fayum dating back to at least the Epipalaeolithic. Middle Holocene occupations of the area are most widely studied on the north shore of Lake Moeris, where Gertrude Caton Thompson and Elinor Wight Gardner did a number of excavations of Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic sites, as well as a general survey of the area. Recently the area has been further investigated by a team from the UCLA/RUG/UOA Fayum Project In ancient Egypt, the city was called Shedet. It was the most significant center of the cult of the crocodile god Sobek (borrowed from the Demotic pronunciation as Koinē Greek: Σοῦχος, "Soûkhos," and then into Latin as "Suchus"). In consequence, the Greeks called it "Crocodile City" (Koinē Greek: Κροκοδειλόπολις, "Krokodeilópolis"), which was borrowed into Latin as "Crocodīlopolis." The city worshiped a tamed sacred crocodile called in Koine "Petsuchos," "the Son of Soukhos," that was adorned with gold and gem pendants. The Petsoukhos lived in a special temple pond and was fed by the priests with food provided by visitors. When Petsuchos died, it was replaced by another. Under the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the city was for a while called "Ptolemais Euergétis" (Koinē Greek: Πτολεμαῒς Εὐεργέτις). Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309–246 BC) renamed the city "Arsinoë" and the whole nome after the name of his sister-wife Arsinoe II (316–270 or 268), who was deified after her death as part of the Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great, the official religion of the kingdom. Under the Roman Empire, Arsinoë became part of the province of Arcadia Aegypti. To distinguish it from other cities of the same name, it was called "Arsinoë in Arcadia." With the arrival of Christianity, Arsinoë became the seat of a bishopric, a suffragan of Oxyrhynchus, the capital of the province and the metropolitan see. Michel Le Quien gives the names of several bishops of Arsinoë, nearly all of them associated with one heresy or another. The Catholic Church, considering Arsinoë in Arcadia to be no longer a residential bishopric, lists it as a titular see. Fayyum was the seat of Shahralanyozan, governor of the Sasanian Egypt (619–629). The 10th-century Bible exegete, Saadia Gaon, thought "el-Fayyum" to have actually been the biblical city of Pithom, mentioned in Exodus 1:11. Around 1245, the region became the subject of the most detailed government survey to survive from the medieval Arab world, conducted by Abū ‘Amr ‘Uthman Ibn al-Nābulusī. Faiyum mummy portraits Main article: Faiyum mummy portraits Faiyum is the source of some famous death masks or mummy portraits painted during the Roman occupation of the area. The Egyptians continued their practice of burying their dead, despite the Roman preference for cremation. While under the control of the Roman Empire, Egyptian death masks were painted on wood in a pigmented wax technique called encaustic—the Faiyum mummy portraits represent this technique. While previously believed to represent Greek settlers in Egypt, modern studies conclude that the Faiyum portraits instead represent mostly native Egyptians, reflecting the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and that of the elite Greek minority in the city. Modern city Faiyum has several large bazaars, mosques, baths and a much-frequented weekly market. The canal called Bahr Yussef runs through the city, its banks lined with houses. There are two bridges over the river: one of three arches, which carries the main street and bazaar, and one of two arches, over which is built the Qaitbay mosque, that was a gift from his wife to honor the Mamluk Sultan in Fayoum. Mounds north of the city mark the site of Arsinoe, known to the ancient Greeks as Crocodilopolis, where in ancient times the sacred crocodile kept in Lake Moeris was worshipped. The center of the city is on the canal, with four waterwheels that were adopted by the governorate of Fayoum as its symbol; their chariots and bazaars are easy to spot. Main sights . Hanging Mosque, built when the Ottomans ruled Egypt by prince "Marawan bin Hatem" . Hawara, archeological site 27 km (17 mi) from the city . Lahun Pyramids, 4 km (2 mi) outside the city . Qaitbay Mosque, in the city, and was built by the wife of the Mamluk Sultan Qaitbay . Qasr Qarun, 44 km (27 mi) from the city . Wadi Elrayan or Wadi Rayan, the largest waterfalls in Egypt, around 50 km (31 mi) from the city . Wadi Al-Hitan or Valley of whales, a paleontological site in the Al Fayyum Governorate, some 150 km (93 mi) southwest of Cairo. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Climate Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as hot desert (BWh). The highest record temperatures was 46 °C (115 °F) on June 13, 1965 and the lowest record temperature was 2 °C (36 °F) on January 8, 1966. [chart] Notable people People from Faiyum may be known as al-Fayyumi: . Tefta Tashko-Koço (1910-1947), well known Albanian singer was born in Faiyum, where her family lived at that time. . Gaon (882/892-942), the influential Jewish teacher of the early 10th century, was originally from Faiyum, and often called al-Fayyumi. . Youssef Wahbi (1898-1982), a notable Egyptian actor, well known for his influence on the development of Egyptian cinema and theater. . Mohamed Ihab (b. 1989), Egypts most decorated weightlifter. He is a World Champion competing in the 77 kg category until 2018 and currently in the 81 kg class. He will be representing Egypt in the Olympic Summer Games in Tokyo. Gallery
   
5. Title: Wikiwand: Senusret II
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Senusret_II;
   Note: Khakheperre Senusret II was the fourth pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1897 BC to 1878 BC. His pyramid was constructed at El-Lahun. Senusret II took a great deal of interest in the Faiyum oasis region and began work on an extensive irrigation system from Bahr Yussef through to Lake Moeris through the construction of a dike at El-Lahun and the addition of a network of drainage canals. The purpose of his project was to increase the amount of cultivable land in that area. The importance of this project is emphasized by Senusret II's decision to move the royal necropolis from Dahshur to El-Lahun where he built his pyramid. This location would remain the political capital for the 12th and 13th Dynasties of Egypt. The king also established the first known workers' quarter in the nearby town of Senusrethotep (Kahun). Unlike his successor, Senusret II maintained good relations with the various nomarchs or provincial governors of Egypt who were almost as wealthy as the pharaoh. His Year 6 is attested in a wall painting from the tomb of a local nomarch named Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan. Reign Co-regency Co-regencies are a major issue for Egyptologists' understanding of the history of the Middle Kingdom and the Twelfth Dynasty. The French Egyptologist Claude Obsomer wholly rejects the possibility of co-regencies in the Twelfth Dynasty. Author Robert D. Delia, and German Eyptologist Karl Jansen-Winkeln have investigated Obsomer's work and have concluded in favor of co-regencies. Jansen-Winkeln cites a rock stele found at Konosso as irrefutable evidence in favour of a co-regency between Senusret II and Amenemhat II, and by extension proof of co-regencies in the Twelfth Dynasty. The American Egyptologist William J. Murnane states that "the co-regencies of the period are all known ... from double-dated documents." The German Egyptologist Schneider concludes that recently discovered documents and archaeological evidence are effectively proof of co-regencies in this period. Some sources ascribe a co-regency period to Senusret II's rule, with his father Amenemhat II as his co-regent. The British Egyptologist Peter Clayton ascribes at least three years of co-regency to Senusret II's reign. The French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal assigns nearly five years of co-regency prior to sole accession to the throne. Length of reign The lengths of the reigns of Senusret II and Senusret III are one of the main considerations for discerning the chronology of the Twelfth Dynasty. The Turin Canon is believed to assign a reign of 19 years to Senusret II and 30 years of reign to Senusret III. This traditional view was challenged in 1972 when the American Egyptologist William Kelly Simpson observed that the latest attested regnal year for Senusret II was his 7th, and similarly for Senusret III his 19th. Kim Ryholt, a professor of Egyptology at the University of Copenhagen, suggests the possibility that the names on the canon had been mis-arranged and offers two possible regnal lengths for Senusret II: 10+ years, or 19 years. Several Egyptologists, such as Thomas Schneider, cite Mark C. Stone's article, published in the Göttinger Miszellen in 1997, as determining that Senusret II's highest recorded regnal year was his 8th, based on Stela Cairo JE 59485. Some scholars prefer to ascribe him a reign of only 10 years and assign the 19-year reign to Senusret III instead. Other Egyptologists, however, such as Jürgen von Beckerath and Frank Yurco, have maintained the traditional view of a longer 19-year reign for Senusret II given the level of activity undertaken by the king during his reign. Yurco notes that reducing Senusret II's regnal length to 6 years poses difficulties because: "That pharaoh built a complete pyramid at Kahun, with a solid granite funerary temple and complex of buildings. Such projects optimally took fifteen to twenty years to complete, even with the mudbrick cores used in Middle Kingdom pyramids." At present, the problem concerning the reign length of Senusret II is unresolvable but many Egyptologists today prefer to assign him a reign of 9 or 10 years only given the absence of higher dates attested for him beyond his 8th regnal year. This would entail amending the 19-year figure which the Turin Canon assigns for a 12th dynasty ruler in his position to 9 years instead. However, Senusret II's monthly figure on the throne might be ascertained. According to Jürgen von Beckerath, the temple documents of El-Lahun, the pyramid city of Sesostris/Senusret II often mention the Festival of "Going Forth to Heaven" which might be the date of death for this ruler. These documents state that this Festival occurred on IV Peret day 14. Domestic activities The Faiyum Oasis, a region in Middle Egypt, has been inhabited by humans for more than 8000 years. It became an important center in Egypt during the Middle Kingdom. Throughout the period, rulers undertook developmental projects turning Faiyum into an agricultural, religious, and resort-like center. The oasis was located 80 km (50 mi) south-west of Memphis offering arable land centred around Lake Moeris, a natural body of water. Senusret II initiated a project to exploit the marshy region's natural resources for hunting and fishing, a project continued by his successors and which "matured" during the reign of his grandson Amenemhat III. To set off this project, Senusret II developed an irrigation system with a dyke and a network of canals which siphoned water from Lake Moeris. The land reclaimed in this project was then farmed. Cults honoring the crocodile god Sobek were prominent at the time. Activities outside Egypt Senusret II's reign ushered in a period of peace and prosperity, with no recorded military campaigns and the proliferation of trade between Egypt and the Near-East. Succession There is an absence of serious evidence for a co-regency between Senusret II and Senusret III. Murnane identifies that the only existing evidence for a coregency of Senusret II and III is a scarab with both kings names inscribed on it. The association can be explained as being the result of retroactive dating where Senusret II's final regnal year was absorbed into Senusret III's first one, as would be supported by contemporaneous evidence from the Turin Canon which give Senusret II a regnal duration of 19 full regnal years and a partial one. A dedicatory inscription celebrating the resumption of rituals begun by Senusret II and III, and a papyrus with entries identifying Senusret II's nineteenth regnal year and Senusret III's first regnal year are scant evidence and do not necessitate a coregency. Murnane argues that if there was a coregency, it could not have lasted more than a few months. The evidence from the papyrus document is now obviated by the fact that the document has been securely dated to Year 19 of Senusret III and Year 1 of Amenemhet III. At present, no document from Senusret II's reign has been discovered from Lahun, the king's new capital city. Tomb treasure In 1889, the English Egyptologist Flinders Petrie found "a marvelous gold and inlaid royal uraeus" that originally must have formed part of Senusret II's looted burial equipment in a flooded chamber of the king's pyramid tomb. It is now located in the Cairo Museum. The tomb of Princess Sithathoriunet, a daughter of Senusret II, was also discovered by Egyptologists in a separate burial site. Several pieces of jewellery from her tomb including a pair of pectorals and a crown or diadem were found there. They are now displayed at the Metropolitan Museum of New York or the Cairo Museum in Egypt. In 2009, Egyptian archaeologists announced the results of new excavations led by egyptologist Abdul Rahman Al-Ayedi. They described unearthing a cache of pharaonic-era mummies in brightly painted wooden coffins near the Lahun pyramid. The mummies were reportedly the first to be found in the sand-covered desert rock surrounding the pyramid. Pyramid Main article: Pyramid of Senusret II The pyramid was built around a framework of limestone radial arms, similar to the framework used by Senusret I. Instead of using an infill of stones, mud and mortar, Senusret II used an infill of mud bricks before cladding the structure with a layer of limestone veneer. The outer cladding stones were locked together using dovetail inserts, some of which still remain. A trench was dug around the central core that was filled with stones to act as a French Drain. The limestone cladding stood in this drain, indicating that Senusret II was concerned with water damage. There were eight mastabas and one small pyramid to the north of Senusret's complex and all were within the enclosure wall. The wall had been encased in limestone that was decorated with niches, perhaps as a copy of Djoser's complex at Saqqara. The mastabas were solid and no chambers have found within or beneath, indicating that they were cenotaphs and possibly symbolic in nature. Flinders Petrie investigated the auxiliary pyramid and found no chambers. The entrances to the underground chambers were on the southern side of the pyramid, which confused Flinders Petrie for some months as he looked for the entrance on the traditional northern side. The builders' vertical access shaft had been filled in after construction and the chamber made to look like a burial chamber. This was no doubt an attempt to convince tomb robbers to look no further. A secondary access shaft led to a vaulted chamber and a deep well shaft. This may have been an aspect of the cult of Osiris, although it may have been to find the water table. A passage led northwards, past another lateral chamber and turned westwards. This led to an antechamber and vaulted burial chamber, with a side chamber to the south. The burial chamber was encircled by a unique series of passages that may have reference to the birth of Osiris. A large sarcophagus was found within the burial chamber; it is larger than the doorway..
   
6. Title: Wikiwand: Nomarch
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Nomarch;
   Note: A nomarch (Ancient Egyptian: "heri-tep a'a") was a provincial governor in Ancient Egypt; the country was divided into 42 provinces, called nomes (Egyptian: "sepat"). A nomarch was the government official responsible for a "nome." Etymology "Nome" is derived from the Greek "nomos" ("νομός"), meaning a province or district. Nomarch is derived from the Greek word "nomarchēs" ("νομάρχης"): "νομός" (nome) + "άρχης "(ruler). Egyptian history The division of the Egyptian kingdom into nomes can be documented as far back as the reign of Djoser of the 3rd Dynasty in the early Old Kingdom, c. 2670 BCE, and probably dates even further back to the Predynastic kingdoms of the Nile valley. The earliest topographical lists of the nomes of Upper and Lower Egypt date back to the reign of Nyuserre Ini, of the mid 5th Dynasty, from which time the nomarchs no longer lived at royal capital but stayed in their nomes. The power of the nomarchs grew with the reforms of Nyuserre's second successor, Djedkare Isesi, which effectively decentralized the Egyptian state. The post of nomarch then quickly became hereditary, thereby creating a virtual feudal system where local allegiances slowly superseded obedience to the pharaoh. Less than 200 years after Djedkare's reign, the nomarchs had become the all-powerful heads of the provinces. At the dawn of the First Intermediate Period, the power of the Pharaohs of the 8th Dynasty had diminished to the extent that they owed their position to the most powerful nomarchs, upon whom they could only bestow titles and honours. The power of the nomarchs remained important during the later royal revival under the impulse of the 11th Dynasty, originally a family of Theban nomarchs. Their power diminished during the subsequent 12th Dynasty, setting the stage for the apex of royal power during the Middle Kingdom. Later re-use of the term The title "nomarch" continued to be used even into the Roman period. The title is also in use in modern Greece for the heads of the prefectures of Greece, which were also titled "nomos" (pl. "νομοί," "nomoi"; "νομαρχία," "nomarchia" also being used to refer to the area within a nomarch's purview).
   
7. Title: Wikiwand: Pharaoh
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Pharaoh;
   Note: Pharaoh (/ˈfɛəroʊ/, US also /ˈfeɪ.roʊ/; Coptic: "ⲡⲣ̅ⲣⲟ," "Pǝrro") is the common title of the monarchs of ancient Egypt from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BCE) until the annexation of Egypt by the Roman Empire in 30 BCE,[2] although the actual term "Pharaoh" was not used contemporaneously for a ruler until Merneptah, c. 1200 BCE. In the early dynasty, ancient Egyptian kings used to have up to three titles, the Horus, the Sedge and Bee ("nswt-bjtj") name, and the Two Ladies ("nbtj") name. The Golden Horus and nomen and prenomen titles were later added. In Egyptian society, religion was central to everyday life. One of the roles of the pharaoh was as an intermediary between the gods and the people. The pharaoh thus deputized for the gods; his role was both as civil and religious administrator. He owned all of the land in Egypt, enacted laws, collected taxes, and defended Egypt from invaders as the commander-in-chief of the army. Religiously, the pharaoh officiated over religious ceremonies and chose the sites of new temples. He was responsible for maintaining Maat (mꜣꜥt), or cosmic order, balance, and justice, and part of this included going to war when necessary to defend the country or attacking others when it was believed that this would contribute to Maat, such as to obtain resources. During the early days prior to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, the Deshret or the "Red Crown," was a representation of the kingdom of Lower Egypt, while the Hedjet, the "White Crown," was worn by the kings of the kingdom of Upper Egypt. After the unification of both kingdoms into one united Egypt, the Pschent, the combination of both the red and white crowns was the official crown of kings. With time new headdresses were introduced during different dynasties like the Khat, Nemes, Atef, Hemhem crown, and Khepresh. At times, it was depicted that a combination of these headdresses or crowns would be worn together. Etymology, The word "pharaoh" ultimately derives from the Egyptian compound "pr ꜥꜣ," */ˌpaɾuwˈʕaʀ/ "great house," written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs pr "house" and ꜥꜣ "column," here meaning "great" or "high." It was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-ꜥꜣ "Courtier of the High House," with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace. From the Twelfth Dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula "Great House, May it Live, Prosper, and be in Health," but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person. Sometime during the era of the New Kingdom, Second Intermediate Period, "pharaoh" became the form of address for a person who was king. The earliest confirmed instance where "pr" is used specifically to address the ruler is in a letter to Akhenaten (reigned c. 1353–1336 BCE) which is addressed to "Great House, L, W, H, the Lord." However, there is a possibility that the title pr ꜥꜣ was applied to Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BCE), depending on whether an inscription on the Temple of Armant can be confirmed to refer to that king. During the Eighteenth Dynasty (16th to 14th centuries BCE) the title pharaoh was employed as a reverential designation of the ruler. About the late Twenty-first Dynasty (10th century BCE), however, instead of being used alone as before, it began to be added to the other titles before the ruler's name, and from the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (eighth to seventh centuries BCE) it was, at least in ordinary usage, the only epithet prefixed to the royal appellative. From the nineteenth dynasty onward "pr-" on its own was used as regularly as "ḥm," "Majesty." The term, therefore, evolved from a word specifically referring to a building to a respectful designation for the ruler, particularly by the Twenty-Second Dynasty and Twenty-third Dynasty. For instance, the first dated appearance of the title pharaoh being attached to a ruler's name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of Pharaoh Siamun. This new practice was continued under his successor Psusennes II and the Twenty-second Dynasty kings. For instance, the Large Dakhla stela is specifically dated to Year 5 of king "Pharaoh Shoshenq, beloved of Amun," whom all Egyptologists concur was Shoshenq I—the founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty—including Alan Gardiner in his original 1933 publication of this stela. Shoshenq I was the second successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the old custom of referring to the sovereign simply as pr-ˤ3 continued in traditional Egyptian narratives. By this time, the Late Egyptian word is reconstructed to have been pronounced *[parʕoʔ] whence Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, Koinē Greek: Φερων. In the Hebrew Bible, the title also occurs as Hebrew: פרעה‎ [parʕoːh]; from that, in the Septuagint, Koinē Greek: φαραώ, romanized: pharaō, and then in Late Latin pharaō, both -n stem nouns. The Qur'an likewise spells it Arabic: فرعون‎ firʿawn with n (here, always referring to the one evil king in the Book of Exodus story, by contrast to the good king Aziz in surah Yusuf's story). The Arabic combines the original ayin from Egyptian along with the -n ending from Greek.
   
8. Title: Wikiwand: William J. Murnane
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/William_J._Murnane;
   Note: William Joseph Murnane (March 22, 1945 – November 17, 2000) was an American Egyptologist and author of a number of books and monographs on Ancient Egypt. He was director of the Great Hypostyle Hall Project at Luxor Karnak Temple, was a research associate and held a Dunavant Professorship in the History Department of the Institute of Egyptian Art & Archaeology at the University of Memphis. Several of his scholarly monographs are used as standard references by historians and philologists whilst more popular works, which drew on his considerable knowledge of Ancient Egyptian monuments, are used by tourists. Life and work Murnane was born in White Plains, New York, in 1945 but at 18 months old moved with his parents to in Venezuela, where he was raised. On returning to the United States at 13 he attended Saint Anselm College in New Hampshire, where he showed an early interest in Egyptian hieroglyphs and wrote letters to his sister using the ancient language. He supplemented his income by teaching Spanish and graduated in 1966. In 1972 he joined the staff of the Epigraphic Survey at Chicago House in Luxor, Egypt, and gained his doctorate (with honors) from the University of Chicago the following year with his thesis Ancient Egyptian Coregencies. His epigraphic work included documenting the texts and depictions from major temples in Karnak, Khonsu, and Luxor as well as from the small temple at Medinet Habu. Along with Charles van Siclen, he located and copied the texts at Akhenaten’s capital city and published them in 1993 as "The Boundary Stelae of Akhenaten." He also contributed translations and commentaries for folio editions publications produced by the Oriental Institute. He remained at Luxor until 1986, when he was appointed Visiting Associate Professor of Egyptology at the University of California, Berkeley.[2] The following year he was employed by Memphis State University (later called University of Memphis) in their history department and was appointed full professor in 1994.[1] He was on the editorial boards of several journals, including JARCE, JEA and KMT. He was also a member of the boards of the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Michela Schiff Giorgini Foundation for the review of grants. ". He was the director of the Karnak Great Hypostyle Hall Project for over twenty years, seeking to document all the texts and depictions on one of the most frequently visited monuments before they vanished. Murnane won numerous awards and prestigious grants during his career. He was awarded the Distinguished Research Award of the College of Arts and Sciences in 1994. He was presented with: the Eminent Faculty Research Award (the University of Memphis’ highest distinction) and was the winner of three University faculty research awards. He has been described as "the ideal colleague, a real 'gentleman scholar.'" In 2009 a volume of essays by scholars to honour the memory William Murnane was published "Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane." Select bibliography . "Ancient Egyptian Coregencies" (Oriental Institute Chicago, 1977) ISSN 0081-7554 . "United with Eternity" (Chicago, 1980) ISBN 0-918986-28-1 . "The Penguin Guide to Ancient Egypt" (London, 1983; revised 1996) ISBN 0140463267 . "The Road to Kadesh" (Chicago, 1985; revised 1990) . "The Boundary Stelae of Akhenaten" (1993) ISBN 0710304641 . "Texts from the Amarna Period" (Atlanta, 1995; revised 1998) ISBN 1555409660
   
9. Title: "Tomb Treasures of the Late Middle Kingdom: The Archaeology of Female Burials," by Wolfram Grajetzki
   Author: University of Pennsylvania Press, Jan 23, 2014
   Publication: Name: https://books.google.com/books?id=s3ceAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA193&lpg=PA193&dq=Menet,+King%27s+Daughter&source=bl&ots=4AkDtCmWJm&sig=ACfU3U2Yoy-7dIrWCaFHrq7FoV9WWb97eQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi93PfTg8bnAhVSg3IEHdEhAxwQ6AEwFXoECBAQAQ#v=onepage&q=senusret%20ii&f=false;
   Note: During the late Middle Kingdom (about 1850-1700 B.C.E.), ancient Egyptian women of high standing were interred with lavish ornamentation and carefully gathered possessions. Buried near the pyramids of kings, women with royal connections or great wealth and status were surrounded by fine pottery and vessels for sacred oils, bedecked with gold and precious stones, and honored with royal insignia and marks of Osiris. Their funerary possessions include jewelry imported from other ancient lands and gold-handled daggers and claspless jewelry made only to be worn in the tomb. Extensively illustrated with archival images and the author's own drawings, "Treasures of the Late Middle Kingdom" describes and compares the opulent tombs of eminent and royal women. In addition to the ornaments, many of which are considered masterpieces of Middle Kingdom craft, Egyptologist Wolfram Grajetzki examines the numerous grave goods, artifacts of daily life, and markers of social status that were also placed in tombs, presenting a more complete picture of funerary customs in this period. By considering celebrated examples of female burials together for the first time, "Treasures of the Late Middle Kingdom" sheds new light on the role and status of women in the royal court and explores how the gendered identity of those women was preserved in the grave.
   
10. Title: Wikiwand: Itakayt
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Itakayt;
    Note: Itakayt was an Ancient Egyptian princess and queen of the 12th Dynasty, around 1800 BC. She is mainly known from her small pyramid next to the one of Senusret III at Dahshur. She had the titles "king's daughter of his body, powerful, graceful" and "beloved." The Pyramid Her pyramid at the North side of the king's pyramid measured about 16.80 m at the base, and was once perhaps also 16.80 m high. It was built of mud bricks and covered with limestone slabs. In front of the pyramid was a small chapel decorated with reliefs. The remains of the reliefs preserved Itakayt's name. Her burial chamber contained a sarcophagus, a canopic chest and two canopic jars. Other sources Itakayt perhaps also is known from a papyrus fragment found at Lahun. Here, family members of a king are listed, including Itakayt. It is uncertain to which king these members of a royal family are related. Senusret II seems to be most likely candidate, as the papyrus fragment was found at his funerary temple. This would make Itakayt a sister of Senusret III.
    
11. Title: Wikiwand: Dahshur
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Dahshur;
    Note: Dahshur (in English often called "Dashur"; Arabic: "دهشور," "Dahšūr pronounced [dɑhˈʃuːɾ], Coptic: "ⲧⲁϩϭⲟⲩⲣ," "Dahchur") is a royal necropolis located in the desert on the west bank of the Nile approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) south of Cairo. It is known chiefly for several pyramids, two of which are among the oldest, largest and best preserved in Egypt, built from 2613–2589 BC. Pyramids The Dahshur pyramids were an extremely important learning experience for the Egyptians. It provided them with the knowledge and know-how to transition from step-sided pyramids to smooth-sided pyramids. Ultimately their breadth of experience would allow them to build the Great Pyramid of Giza; the last of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still standing to this date. Pyramids The Dahshur pyramids were an extremely important learning experience for the Egyptians. It provided them with the knowledge and know-how to transition from step-sided pyramids to smooth-sided pyramids. Ultimately their breadth of experience would allow them to build the Great Pyramid of Giza; the last of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still standing to this date. The first of the Dahshur pyramids was the Bent Pyramid (2613–2589 BCE), built under the rule of King Sneferu, the Bent Pyramid was the first attempt at building a smooth sided pyramid, but proved to be an unsuccessful build due to the miscalculations made on the structural weight that was being placed onto the soft ground (sand, gravel, and clay) which had a tendency to subside. Other calculations that were proven to be erroneous were that the blocks being used were cut in such a manner that when placed onto the pyramid their weight was not distributed appropriately, causing the angle of the pyramid to be off and achieving the name "the Bent Pyramid." Realizing his shortcomings and learning from his mistakes, King Sneferu ordered the building of the second pyramid of Dahshur, the Red Pyramid. Once completed, the pyramid was considered to be a success, as it was a fully constructed, smooth-sided, and a free-standing pyramid rising to a height of 341 feet (104 meters), with an angle of 43 degrees. The Red Pyramid’s name reigns from the material that was used to construct the pyramid, red limestone. And this pyramid is believed to be the resting place of King Sneferu. Shortly after King Sneferu’s death a third pyramid was erected by his son Khufu. Khufu wanting to build a legacy of his own, utilized his father’s research to design and guide the building process of the third pyramid to completion (2589–2566 BCE). Once completed the pyramid was named The Great Pyramid of Giza, and it stands an astonishing 481 feet (147 meters) tall with an angle of 52 degrees. Another pyramid located within Dahshur is that of the 12th Dynasty King Amenemhat II (1929–1895 BCE). This pyramid has not been preserved as well as the others within the area due to the materials that were used to fill it (sand on the outside and limestone on the inside). Naturally the weather caused the sand to erode from it, but the limestone was taken intentionally for use on other pyramids allowing the pyramid to collapse and ultimately desecrating the tomb of King Amenemhat II. King Senusret III (1878–1839 BCE) had his pyramid built within Dahshur. The difference between his pyramid in comparison to those surrounding it was that King Senusret III had tombs and galleries built underneath it for two princesses; Sit-Hathor and Merit. The Black Pyramid dates from the later reign of Amenemhat III and, although badly eroded, it remains the most imposing monument at the site after the two Sneferu pyramids. The polished granite pyramidion or capstone of the Black Pyramid is on display in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Several other pyramids of the 13th Dynasty were built at Dahshur. Only the pyramid of Ameny Qemau has been excavated so far by Ahmad Fakhri, the archaeologist who excavated this site. Tombs & Cemeteries Located closely to the pyramid of the 12th Dynasty several undisturbed tombs of royal women were found, containing a large amount of lapidary and jewelry that have been determined to be of the highest stage of metalworking in Egypt during this time period. The pyramid of Senusret III was part of a huge complex, with several smaller pyramids of royal women, along with another pyramid to the south. In a gallery tomb next to this pyramid were found two treasures of the king's daughters (Sithathor). Extensive cemeteries of officials of the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom have been found around Dahshur's pyramids. Dahshur was Egypt's royal necropolis during the reign of the 12th Dynasty king Amenemhat II. Contemporary history In July 2012, Dahshur's entire Christian community, which some estimate to be as many as 120 families, fled to nearby towns due to sectarian violence. The violence began in a dispute over a badly ironed shirt, which in turn escalated into a fight in which a Christian burned a Muslim Arab clan member to death. Furthermore, during clashes another Muslim suffered head injuries and later died due to a gasoline bomb being thrown from a roof top of a building. At least 16 homes and properties of Christians were pillaged, some were torched, and a church was damaged during the violence. This incident was reported internationally. As of January 2013, and due to the security vacuum that still prevails in Egypt following the 2011 uprising, the site is under threat of desecration and damage due to encroachment by locals of surrounding urban settlements. Climate Dahshur has a hot desert climate (BWh) according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system.
    
12. Title: Wikiwand: Kahun Papyri
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Kahun_Papyri;
    Note: The Kahun Papyri (KP) (also Petrie Papyri or Lahun Papyri) are a collection of ancient Egyptian texts discussing administrative, mathematical and medical topics. Its many fragments were discovered by Flinders Petrie in 1889 and are kept at the University College London. This collection of papyri is one of the largest ever found. Most of the texts are dated to ca. 1825 BC, to the reign of Amenemhat III. In general the collection spans the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. The texts span a variety of topics: . Business papers of the cult of Senusret II . Hymns to king Senusret III. . The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus, which deals with gynaecological illnesses and conditions. . The Lahun Mathematical Papyri are a collection of mathematical texts . A veterinarian papyrus . A late Middle Kingdom account, listing festivals
    
13. Title: Wikiwand: El Lahun
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/El_Lahun;
    Note: El Lahun (Arabic: "اللاهون‎," "El Lāhūn", Coptic: "ⲗⲉϩⲱⲛⲉ" alt. Illahun, Lahun, or Kahun [the latter being a neologism coined by archaeologist William Matthew Flinders Petrie]) is a village in Faiyum, Egypt. El Lahun is associated with the Pyramid of Senusret II (Greek: Sesostris II), which is located near the modern town, and is often called the "Pyramid of Lahun." The ancient name of the site was "rꜣ-ḥn.t," literally, "Mouth (or Opening) of the Canal"). Overview Like the other Twelfth Dynasty pyramids in the Faiyum, the Pyramid of Lahun is made of mud brick, but here the core of the pyramid consists of a network of stone walls that were infilled by mud brick. This approach was probably intended to ensure the stability of the brick structure. Unusually, despite a Pyramid Temple on the east side, the entrance to the pyramid is on the south. The archaeologist Flinders Petrie nevertheless spent considerable time searching for it on the east side. He discovered the entrance only when workmen clearing the nearby tombs of the nobles discovered a small tunnel at the bottom of a 40-foot shaft, which led to the royal burial chamber. Evidently the original workmen on the tomb had used their legitimate activity as a cover for digging this tunnel, which enabled them to rob the pyramid. Once he was in the burial chamber, Petrie was able to work backwards to the entrance. The pyramid stands on an artificial terrace cut from sloping ground. On the north side eight rectangular blocks of stone were left to serve as mastabas, probably for the burial of personages associated with the royal court. In front of each mastaba is a narrow shaft leading down to the burial chamber underneath. Also on the north side is the Queen's Pyramid or subsidiary pyramid. The most remarkable discovery was that of the village of the workers who both constructed the pyramid and then served the funerary cult of the king. The village, conventionally known as Kahun, is about 800 meters from the pyramid and lies in the desert a short distance from the edge of cultivation. When found, many of the buildings were extant up to roof height, and Petrie confirmed that the true arch was known and used by the workmen in the village. However, all the buildings found were demolished in the process of excavation, which proceeded in long strips down the length of the village. When the first strip had been cleared, mapped and drawn, the next strip was excavated and the spoil dumped in the previous strip. As a result, there is very little to be seen on the site today. The village was excavated by Petrie in 1888-90 and again in 1914. The excavation was remarkable for the number, range, and quality of objects of everyday life (including tools) that were found in the houses. According to Dr Rosalie David's "Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt," "the quantity, range and type of articles of everyday use which were left behind in the houses may indeed suggest that the departure [of the workmen] was sudden and unpremeditated" (p. 199). Among the curiosities found there were wooden boxes buried beneath the floors of many of the houses. When opened they were found to contain the skeletons of infants, sometimes two or three in a box, and aged only a few months at death. Petrie reburied these human remains in the desert. Also found in the town were the "Kahun papyri," comprising about 1000 fragments, covering legal and medical matters. Re-excavation of the area in 2009 by Egyptian archaeologists revealed a cache of pharaonic-era mummies in brightly painted wooden coffins in the sand-covered desert rock surrounding the pyramid. The site was occupied into the late Thirteenth Dynasty, and then again in the New Kingdom, when there were large land reclamation schemes in the area. Town layout The town was laid out in a regular plan, with mud-brick town walls on 3 sides. No evidence was found of a fourth wall, which may have collapsed and been washed away during the annual inundation. The town was rectangular in shape and was divided internally by a mudbrick wall as large and strong as the exterior walls. This wall divided about one third of the area of the town and in this smaller area the houses consisted of rows of back-to-back, side-by-side single room houses. The larger area, which was higher up the slope and thus benefited from whatever breeze was blowing, contained a much smaller number of large, multi-room villas. The size of the houses ranged from 2,520 square meters for the elite houses to 120 square meters for small houses. Petrie compared the village to a Welsh mining village, where the workers lived in terraces in the valley while the mine owner and overseers lived in larger houses up the hill. A major feature of the town was the so-called "acropolis" building. This was an important building, as indicated by the presence of column bases. Petrie suggested that this may have been the King’s residence whilst he was visiting construction work. The building seems to have been out of use and derelict before the end of occupation. Other records show that there were a large number of Semitic slaves in Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty. It is interesting that some of the villas were constructed of layers of mudbrick separated by layers of reed matting, a technique used in Mesopotamia. Furthermore, burial beneath the living quarters of a house was a custom noted at Ur by Woolley. It is possible that the workers who were so carefully guarded by the village wall and separated from the overseers by an equally strong wall were Semitic (Asiatic) slaves not trusted by their overseers. Discoveries It was announced by the Supreme Council of Antiquities on 26 April 2009 that an anthology of pharaonic-era mummies in vividly painted wooden coffins were uncovered near the Lahun pyramid in Egypt. The sarcophagi were decorated with bright hues of green, red and white bearing images of their occupants. Archaeologists unearthed dozens of mummies, thirty of which were very well preserved with prayers purposed to help the deceased in the afterlife inscribed upon them. The site, once enveloped in slabs of white limestone, revealed that it could possibly be thousands of years older than previously thought. Experts think that a new understanding of Egyptian funerary architecture and customs of the Middle Pharaonic Kingdom all the way to the Roman era could be learned from the exploration of the dozens of tombs encompassing the site near the Lahun, Egypt’s southernmost pyramid. "The tombs were cut on the rock itself, and they vary in architectural designs," said archaeologist Abdul Rahman Al-Ayedi, head of excavations at the site. Some of the tombs were erected on top of gravesites from earlier eras. Ayedi told reporters, "The prevailing idea was that this site has been established by Senusret II, the fourth king of the 12th dynasty. But in light of our discovery, I think we are going to change this theory, and soon we will announce another discovery." He said that teams had made a discovery of an artifact that was dated earlier than the 12th dynasty, but did not include any specifics on the item and promised an official statement would be made within days. Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities announced May 23, 2010 that 57 ancient Egyptian tombs were discovered in an area close to Lahun. Most of the graves contained an ornamental painted wooden sarcophagus with a mummy inside. Some of the tombs date to the Egyptian First and Second Dynasties, as far back as 2750 BC. Several of the sites were decorated with hieroglyphics that the ancients believed would help the deceased travel through the afterlife. Twelve of the tombs were found to belong to the 18th dynasty which ruled Egypt during the second millennium BC. Egypt's archaeology chief, Zahi Hawass, said the mummies that date to the 18th dynasty are covered in linen decorated with religious texts from the Book of the Dead and scenes of ancient Egyptian deities. The discovery might help experts have a better understanding of the ancient Egyptian religions. Some of the tombs are decorated with religious texts that ancient Egyptians believed would help the deceased cross over to the underworld, said Abdel Rahman El-Aydi, chief archaeologist of project. El-Aydi said one of the oldest tombs is almost completely intact, with all of its funerary equipment and a wooden sarcophagus containing a mummy wrapped in linen. In 31 of the tombs, dating back to around 2030–1840 B.C., during the Middle Kingdom Era, archaeologists found scenes of different ancient Egyptian deities such as Horus, Amun, Hathor, & Khnum decorated on the tombs.
    
14. Title: Encyclopedia Britannica
    Author: britannica.com
    Publication: Name: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sesostris-I;
    Page: historical record
    
15. Title: Encyclopedia Britannica
    Author: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sesostris-I
    Publication: Name: https://www.familysearch.org/photos/artifacts/53815292;
    
16. Title: Wikiwand: Sithathoriunet
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Sithathoriunet;
    Note: Sithathoriunet (her name means “daughter of Hathor of Dendera”) was an Ancient Egyptian "king's daughter" of the 12th dynasty, mainly known from her burial at El-Lahun in which a treasure trove of jewelery was found. She was possibly a daughter of Senusret II since her burial site was found next to the pyramid of this king. If so, this would make her one of five known children and one of three daughters of Senusret II—the other children were Senusret III, Senusretseneb, Itakait and Nofret. Sithathoriunet was buried in the Kahun pyramid complex. She must have died while Amenemhat III was pharaoh, since objects with his name were found in her tomb. Her name and titles survived on her canopic jars and on an alabaster vessel found in her tomb. Sithathoriunet was buried in the Kahun pyramid complex. She must have died while Amenemhat III was pharaoh, since objects with his name were found in her tomb.[3][4] Her name and titles survived on her canopic jars and on an alabaster vessel found in her tomb. The tomb was excavated in 1914 by Flinders Petrie and Guy Brunton. It previously had been robbed in antiquity but a niche in the burial site escaped the looters' attention. In this niche were found remains of several boxes filled with jewellery and cosmetic objects, such as razors, a mirror and vases. The jewelery found there is considered to be among the highest quality examples ever found in Ancient Egyptian tombs. Also found were two pectorals, one with the name of Senusret II, the other with the name of Amenemhat III. There was also a crown and several bracelets inscribed with the name of Amenemhat III. Most of the objects are made of gold with inlays of precious stone (cloisonné). Today the majority of the finds are located in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York although the crown is located in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
    
17. Title: Wikiwand: Senusret III
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Senusret_III;
    Note: Khakaure Senusret III (also written as Senwosret III or the hellenized form, Sesostris III) was a pharaoh of Egypt. He ruled from 1878 BC to 1839 BC during a time of great power and prosperity, and was the fifth king of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. He was a great pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty and is considered to be, perhaps, the most powerful Egyptian ruler of the dynasty. Consequently, he is regarded as one of the sources for the legend about Sesostris. His military campaigns gave rise to an era of peace and economic prosperity that reduced the power of regional rulers and led to a revival in craftwork, trade, and urban development. Senusret III was among the few Egyptian kings who were deified and honored with a cult during their own lifetime. Family Senusret III was the son of Senusret II and Khenemetneferhedjet I, also called Khenemetneferhedjet I "Weret" (the elder). Three wives of Senusret III are known for certain. These are Itakayt, Khenemetneferhedjet II and Neferthenut, all three mainly known from their burials next to the pyramid of the king at Dahshur. Several daughters are known, although they also are attested only by the burials around the king's pyramid and their exact relation to the king is disputable. These include Sithathor, Menet, Senetsenebtysy, and Meret. Amenemhat III was most likely a son of the king. Other sons are not known. Initiatives Senusret III cleared a navigable canal through the first cataract of the Nile River, (this was different from the Canal of the Pharaohs, which apparently, Senusret III also tried to build). He also relentlessly pushed his kingdom's expansion into Nubia (from 1866 to 1863 BC) where he erected massive river forts including Buhen, Semna, Shalfak and Toshka at Uronarti. He carried out at least four major campaigns into Nubia in his Years 8, 10, 16, and 19. His Year 8 stela at Semna documents his victories against the Nubians, through which he is thought to have made safe the southern frontier, preventing further incursions into Egypt. Another great stela from Semna dated to the third month of Year 16 of his reign mentions his military activities against both Nubia and Canaan. In it, he admonished his future successors to maintain the new border that he had created: "Year 16, third month of winter: the king made his southern boundary at Heh. I have made my boundary further south than my fathers. I have added to what was bequeathed me. (...) As for any son (i.e., successor) of mine who shall maintain this border which my Majesty has made, he is my son born to my Majesty. The true son is he who champions his father, who guards the border of his begetter. But he [who] abandons it, who fails to fight for it, he is not my son, he was not born to me. Now my majesty has had an image made of my majesty, at this border which my majesty has made, in order that you maintain it, in order that you fight for it." His final campaign, which was in his Year 19, was less successful because the king's forces were caught with the Nile being lower than normal and they had to retreat and abandon their campaign in order to avoid being trapped in hostile Nubian territory. Such was his forceful nature and immense influence that Senusret III was worshipped as a deity in Semna by later generations. Jacques Morgan, in 1894, found rock inscriptions near Sehel Island documenting his digging of a canal. Senusret III erected a temple and town in Abydos, and another temple in Medamud. His court included the viziers Sobekemhat, Nebit, and Khnumhotep. Ikhernofret worked as treasurer for the king at Abydos. Senankh cleared the canal at Sehel for the king. Length of reign A double-dated papyrus in the Berlin Museum shows Year 20 of his reign next to Year 1 of his son, Amenemhat III; generally, this is presumed to be a proof for a co-regency with his son, which should have been started in this year. According to Josef W. Wegner, a Year 39 hieratic control note was recovered on a white limestone block from: "...a securely defined deposit of construction debris produced from the building of the Senwosret III mortuary temple. The fragment itself is part of the remnants of the temple construction. This deposit provides evidence for the date of construction of the mortuary temple of Senwosret III at Abydos." Wegner stresses that it is unlikely that Amenemhat III, Senusret's son and successor, would still be working on his father's temple nearly four decades into his own reign. He notes that the only possible explanation for the block's existence at the project is that Senusret III had a 39-year reign, with the final 20 years in coregency with his son Amenemhat III. Since the project was associated with a project of Senusret III, his Regnal Year was presumably used to date the block, rather than Year 20 of Amenemhat III. Wegner interprets this as an implication that Senusret was still alive in the first two decades of his son's reign. Wegner's hypothesis is rejected by some scholars, such as Pierre Tallet and Harco Willems; according to them, it is more likely that such a co-regency never occurred, and that the Year 39 control note still refers to Amenemhat III, who may have ordered some additions to Senusret's monuments. Pyramid and complex Main article: Pyramid of Senusret III Senusret's pyramid complex was built north-east of the Red Pyramid of Dashur.] It far surpassed those from the early twelfth dynasty in size, grandeur, and underlying religious conceptions. There has been speculation that Senusret was not necessarily buried there, but rather, in his sophisticated funerary complex in Abydos and his pyramid more likely being a cenotaph. Senusret's pyramid is 105 meters square and 78 meters high. The total volume was approximately 288,000 cubic meters. The pyramid was built of a core of mud bricks. They were not made a consistent size implying that standardized moulds were not used. The burial chamber was lined with granite. Above the vaulted burial chamber was a second relieving chamber that was roofed with five pairs of limestone beams each weighing 30 tons. Above this was a third mudbrick vault. The pyramid complex included a small mortuary temple and seven smaller pyramids for his queens. There is also an underground gallery with further burials for royal women. Here were found the treasures of Sithathor and queen Mereret. There was also a southern temple, however this has since been destroyed. Royal statuary Senusret III is well known for his distinctive statues, which are almost immediately recognizable as his. On them, the king is depicted at different ages and, in particular, on the aged ones he sports a strikingly somber expression: the eyes are protruding from hollow eye sockets with pouches and lines under them, the mouth and lips have a grimace of bitterness, and the ears are enormous and protruding forward. In sharp contrast with the even-exaggerated realism of the head and, regardless of his age, the rest of the body is idealized as forever young and muscular, in the more classical pharaonic fashion. Scholars could make only assumptions about the reasons why Senusret III chose to have himself portrayed in such a unique way, and polarized on two diverging opinions. Some argue that Senusret wanted to be represented as a lonely and disenchanted ruler, human before divine, consumed by worries and by his responsibilities. At the opposite, other scholars suggested that the statues originally would convey the idea of a dreadful tyrant able to see and hear everything under his strict control. More recently, it has been suggested that the purpose of such peculiar portraiture was not to represent realism, but, rather, to reveal the perceived nature of royal power at the time of Senusret's reign. Trivia Senusret is a major character in Christian Jacq's historical fiction series "The Mysteries of Osiris." Many conservative biblical scholars consider Senusret the pharaoh mentioned in Genesis 39-47, who elevated Joseph to a high administrative post, answerable directly to him.[
    
18. Title: Wikiwand: Turin King List
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Turin_King_List;
    Note: The Turin King List, also known as the Turin Royal Canon, is an ancient Egyptian hieratic papyrus thought to date from the reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II, now in the Museo Egizio (Egyptian Museum) in Turin. The papyrus is the most extensive list available of kings compiled by the ancient Egyptians, and is the basis for most chronology before the reign of Ramesses II. Creation and use The papyrus is believed to date from the reign of Ramesses II, during the middle of the New Kingdom, or the 19th Dynasty. The beginning and ending of the list are now lost; there is no introduction, and the list does not continue after the 19th Dynasty. The composition may thus have occurred at any subsequent time, from the reign of Ramesses II to as late as the 20th Dynasty. The papyrus lists the names of rulers, the lengths of reigns in years, with months and days for some kings. In some cases they are grouped together by family, which corresponds approximately to the dynasties of Manetho's book. The list includes the names of ephemeral rulers or those ruling small territories that may be unmentioned in other sources. The list also is believed to contain kings from the 15th Dynasty, the Hyksos who ruled Lower Egypt and the River Nile delta. The Hyksos rulers do not have cartouches (enclosing borders which indicate the name of a king), and a hieroglyphic sign is added to indicate that they were foreigners, although typically on King Lists foreign rulers are not listed. The papyrus was originally a tax roll, but on its back is written a list of rulers of Egypt – including mythical kings such as gods, demi-gods, and spirits, as well as human kings. That the back of an older papyrus was used may indicate that the list was not of great formal importance to the writer, although the primary function of the list is thought to have been as an administrative aid. As such, the papyrus is less likely to be biased against certain rulers and is believed to include all the kings of Egypt known to its writers up to the 19th or 20th Dynasty. Discovery and reconstruction The papyrus was found by the Italian traveler Bernardino Drovetti in 1820 at Luxor (Thebes), Egypt and was acquired in 1824 by the Egyptian Museum in Turin, Italy and was designated Papyrus Number 1874. When the box in which it had been transported to Italy was unpacked, the list had disintegrated into small fragments. Jean-Francois Champollion, examining it, could recognize only some of the larger fragments containing royal names, and produced a drawing of what he could decipher. A reconstruction of the list was created to better understand it and to aid in research. The Saxon researcher Gustav Seyffarth (1796–1885) re-examined the fragments, some only one square centimeter in size, and made a more complete reconstruction of the papyrus based only on the papyrus fibers, as he could not yet determine the meaning of the hieratic characters. Subsequent work on the fragments was done by the Munich Egyptologist Jens Peter Lauth, which largely confirmed the Seyffarth reconstruction. In 1997, prominent Egyptologist Kim Ryholt published a new and better interpretation of the list in his book, "The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C." After another study of the papyrus, an updated version from Ryholt is expected. Egyptologist Donald Redford has also studied the papyrus and has noted that although many of the list's names correspond to monuments and other documents, there are some discrepancies and not all of the names correspond, questioning the absolute reliability of the document for pre-Ramesses II chronology. Despite attempts at reconstruction, approximately 50% of the papyrus remains missing. This papyrus as presently constituted is 1.7 m long and 0.41 m wide, broken into over 160 fragments. In 2009, previously unpublished fragments were discovered in the storage room of the Egyptian Museum of Turin, in good condition. A new edition of the papyrus is expected. The name Hudjefa, found twice in the papyrus, is now known to have been used by the royal scribes of the Ramesside era during the 19th dynasty of ancient Egypt when the scribes compiled king lists such as the royal table of Sakkara and the royal canon of Turin and the name of a deceased pharaoh was unreadable, damaged, or completely erased. Contents of the papyrus The papyrus is divided into eleven columns, distributed as follows. The names and positions of several kings are still being disputed, since the list is so badly damaged. . Column 1 — Gods of Ancient Egypt . Column 2 — Gods of Ancient Egypt, spirits and mythical kings . Column 3 — Rows 11-25 (Dynasties 1-2) . Column 4 — Rows 1-25 (Dynasties 2-5) . Column 5 — Rows 1-26 (Dynasties 6-8/9/10) . Column 6 — Rows 12-25 (Dynasties 11-12) . Column 7 — Rows 1-2 (Dynasties 12-13) . Column 8 — Rows 1-23 (Dynasty 13) . Column 9 — Rows 1-27 (Dynasty 13-14) . Column 10 — Rows 1-30 (Dynasty 14) . Column 11 — Rows 1-30 (Dynasties 14-17) These are the actual names written on the papyrus, omitting deities, the years, summations and headings: Second Column Row Common name Name in list Transliteration Manuel de Codage Unicode Representation 11 Menes Meni mni <-Y5:N35-M17-> 𓏠𓈖𓇋 12 Hor-Aha Teti ttij <-X1:X1-M17-Z4-> 𓏏𓏏𓇋𓏭 13 Djer Iti, Ita iti <-M17-X1-//-G7-> 𓇋𓏏…𓅆 15 Djet Itui itjwi <-//-G4#12-M17-> …𓅂𓇋 16 Den Qenti qntj <-Aa8:X1*Z4-> 𓐖𓏏𓏭 17 Anedjib Merbiapen mr-biA-pn <-U7:D21-U17-Q3:N35-//-> 𓌻𓂋𓍅𓊪𓈖… 18 Semerkhet Semsem smsm <-S29-G17-S29-G17-> 𓋴𓅓𓋴𓅓 19 Qa'a (Qe)beh qbH <-//-D58-V28-G7-> …𓃀𓎛𓅆 20 Hotepsekhemwy Baunetjer bAw-nTr <-//-G30-R4:Q3-G7-> …𓅢𓊵𓊪𓅆 21 Nebre Kakau kA-kAw <-//-E2-D52:Z1*Z1*Z1-G7-> …𓃓𓂸𓏤𓏤𓏤𓅆 22 Nynetjer Banetjer bA-nTr <-//-R8-D21:N35-G7-> …𓊹𓂋𓈖𓅆 23 Wadjnes ..s ..s <-//-//-S29-G7-> … …𓋴𓅆 24 Senedj Sened.. snDi <-G54-//-> 𓅾… 25 Neferkara I Neferka nfr-kA <-O29-D28-Z1-> 𓉼𓂓𓏤 Third Column Row Common name Name in list Transliteration Manuel de Codage Unicode Representation 2 Neferkasokar Neferkasokar nfr-kA-skr <-F35-D28-Z1-O34:V31:D21-Z5-G7-> 𓄤𓂓𓏤𓊃𓎡𓂋𓏯𓅆 3 Khasekhemwy Bebti bbtj <-D58-D58-N21-G7-> 𓃀𓃀𓈅𓅆 4 Nebka Nebka nbkA <-V30-D28-Z1-> 𓎟𓂓𓏤 5 Djoser Djoser..it Dsr..it <-D45:D21-M17-.:X1#12-G7-> 𓂦𓂋𓇋𓏏𓅆 6 Sekhemkhet Djoserti Dsrti <-D45:D21-X1:Z4-G7-> 𓂦𓂋𓏏𓏭𓅆 7 Hudjefa II Hudjefa HwDfA <-O34-I10-S29-> 𓊃𓆓𓋴 8 Huni Huni Hwni <-V28-Z5-A25-//-G7-> 𓎛𓏯𓀝…𓅆 9 Sneferu Senefer snfr <-S29-F35-I9:D21-G7-> 𓋴𓄤𓆑𓂋𓅆 10 Khufu — — //-// … … 11 Djedefre — — <-//-//-G7-> … …𓅆 12 Khafre ..kha.. ..xa.. <-//-N28-D36-//-G7-> …𓈍𓂝…𓅆 13 Lost — — <-//-//-G7-> … …𓅆 14 Menkaure — — <-//-//-G7-> … …𓅆 15 Shepseskaf — — <-//-//-G7-> … …𓅆 16 Unknown — — — — 17 Userkaf ..kaf ..kAf <-//-//-D28:I9-G7-> … …𓂓𓆑𓅆 18 Sahure — — — — 19 Neferirkare Kakai — — — — 20 Shepseskare — — — — 21 Neferefre — — — — 22 Nyuserre — — — — 23 Menkauhor Menkahor mn-kA-Hr G5-<-G7-Y5:N35-D28-Z1-G7-> 𓅃𓅆𓏠𓈖𓂓𓏤𓅆 24 Djedkare Djed Dd <-R11-R11-> 𓊽𓊽 25 Unas Unis wnis <-E34:N35-M17-S29-> 𓃹𓈖𓇋𓋴 Fourth Column Row Common name Name in list Transliteration Manuel de Codage Unicode Representation 1 Teti — — — — 2 Userkare — — — — 3 Pepi — — — — 4 Merenre Nemtyemsaf I — — — — 5 Pepi II — — — — 6 Merenre Nemtyemsaf II — — — — 7 Neitiqerty Siptah Neitiqerty ntiqrti <-N35:X1*Z5-M17-N29-D21:X1*Z4-G7-> 𓈖𓏏𓏯𓇋𓈎𓂋𓏏𓏭𓅆 8 Lacuna — — — — 9 Menkare Neferka nfr-kA <-F35-D28-Z1-G7-> 𓄤𓂓𓏤𓅆 10 Neferkare II Nefer nfr <-F35-I9:D21-G7-> 𓄤𓆑𓂋𓅆 11 Ibi Ibi ibi <-M17-D58-E8-> 𓇋𓃀𓃙 12 Lost — — — — 13 Lost — — — — 18 Lost — — — — 19 Lost — — — — 20 Neferkare VII Neferkare nfr-kA-ra <-N5-F35-D28-Z1-G7#12-> 𓇳𓄤𓂓𓏤𓅆 21 Nebkaure Khety Khety Xti <-F32:X1-A50-M17-M17-G7-> 𓄡𓏏𓀻𓇌𓅆 22 Senenh.. Senenh.. snnh.. <-S29-M22-M22-N35:N35-A53-.:O4-//> 𓋴𓇒𓈖𓈖𓀾𓉔 … 23 Lost — — — — 24 Mer.. Mer.. mrr.. <-U7:D21-//-> 𓌻𓂋 … 25 Shed.. Shed.. Sd.. <-F30:D46#24-//-> 𓄞𓂧 … 26 H.. H.. H.. <-V28-//-> 𓎛 … Fifth Column Row Common name Name in list Transliteration Manuel de Codage Unicode Representation 1 Lost — — — — 2 Lost — — — — 3 Lost — — — — 4 Lost — — — — 5 Lost — — — — 6 Lost — — — — 7 Lost — — — — 8 Lost — — — — 9 Lost — — — — 12 Mentuhotep I Wah.. wAH.. <-V28#1234-//-> 𓎛𓏏… 13 Intef I — — — — 14 Intef II ..n.. ..n.. <-//-N35-//-> …𓈖… 15 Intef III — — — — 16 Mentuhotep II Nebhepetre nb-hpt-ra <-N5:V30-P8-> 𓇳𓎟𓊤 17 Mentuhotep III Seankhkare s-anx-kA-ra <-S29#34-S34#34-N35:Aa1-D28#34-> 𓋴𓋹𓈖𓐍𓂓 20 Amenemhat I ..pib.. ..p-ib.. <-//-.:Q3-.:F34-.:Z1-G7-> …𓊪𓄣𓏤𓅆 21 Senusret I ..ka.. ..kA.. <-//-D28-Z1-> …𓂓𓏤 22 Amenemhat II — — — — 23 Senusret II — — — — 24 Senusret III — — — — 25 Amenemhat III — — — — Sixth Column Row Common name Name in list Transliteration Manuel de Codage Unicode Representation 1 Amenemhat IV Maakherure mAa-xrw-ra <-N5-U5:D36-P8-V1-A2-> 𓇳𓌷𓂝𓊤𓍢𓀁 2 Sobekneferu Sobeknefrure ..nfrw-ra 𓇳𓄤𓄤𓄤𓆊𓅆 5 Wegaf or Sobekhotep I Khutawire xwt-Awi-ra <-N5-D43:N17:N17#1234-> 𓇳𓂤𓇿𓇿 6 Sekhemkare Sonbef Sekhemkare sxm-kA-ra <-N5#123-Y8#1234-D28#1234-Z1-> 𓇳𓏣𓂓𓏤 7 Sekhemkare Amenemhat V Amenemhat..re imn-m-HAt N5-Y5:.#34-G17-F4:X1*Z1-G7 𓇳𓏠𓅓𓄂𓏏𓏤𓅆 8 Hotepibre Sehetepibre sHtp-ib-ra N5-S29-R4:X1*Q3-F34 𓇳𓋴𓊵𓏏𓊪𓄣𓏤 9 Iufni Iufeni iwfni i-Z7-f-n:A1 𓇋𓏲𓆑𓈖𓀀 10 Amenemhet VI Seankhibre s-anx-ib-ra ra-s-anx-ib 𓇳𓋴𓋹𓈖𓐍𓄣𓏤 11 Semenkare Nebnuni Semenkare smn-kA-ra ra-s-mn:n-kA 𓇳𓋴𓏠𓈖𓂓 12 Sehetepibre Sehetepibre sHtp-ib-ra N5-s-R4:t*p-ib-Z1 𓇳𓋴𓊵𓏏𓊪𓄣𓏤 13 Sewadjkare Sewadjkare swAD-kA-ra ra-s-wAD-kA 𓇳𓋴𓇅𓂓 14 Nedjemibre Nedjemibre nDm-ib-ra ra-nDm-m-mDAt-ib 𓇳𓇛𓅓𓏛𓄣 15 Khaankhre Sobekhotep Sebek..p..re sbk-(Htp)-ra //-N5-I4-// …𓇳𓆋… 16 Renseneb Renseneb rn..nbw r:n-A2-//-n:b-Y1 𓂋𓈖𓀁…𓈖𓃀𓏛 17 Awybre Hor I Autibre Awt-ib-ra ra-Aw-Z7:t-Y1:Z2-ib-Z1 𓇳𓄫𓏲𓏏𓏛𓏥𓄣𓏤 18 Amenemhat VII Sedjefakare sDfa-kA-ra ra-s-D:f-A-//-kA 𓇳𓋴𓆓𓆑…𓂓𓏤 19 Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Amenemhatsebekhotep imn-m-hAt-sbk-Htp M17-Y5:N35-G17-F4:X1-I4-R4:X1-Q3 𓇋𓏠𓈖𓅓𓄂𓏏𓆋𓊵𓏏𓊪 20 Khendjer User..re ..djer wsr...
    
19. Title: Wikiwand: Ancient Egyptian royal titulary
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_titulary;
    Note: The royal titulary or royal protocol is the standard naming convention taken by the pharaohs of ancient Egypt. It symbolises worldly power and holy might and also acts as a sort of mission statement for the reign of a monarch (sometimes it even changed during the reign). The full titulary, consisting of five names, did not come into standard usage until the Middle Kingdom but remained in use as late as the Roman Empire. Origins In order that the pharaoh, who held divine office, could be linked to the people and the gods, special epithets were created for them at their accession to the throne. These titles also served to demonstrate one's qualities and link them to the terrestrial realm. The five names were developed over the centuries beginning with the Horus Name. This name identified the figure as a representative of the god Horus. The Nebty name (the Two Ladies Name) was the second part of the royal titular of Upper and Lower Egypt. This name placed the king under the protection of two female deities, Nekhbet and Wadjet and began sometime towards the end of the First Dynasty as a reference to "The one who belongs to Upper and Lower Egypt", along with mention of the Two Ladies. Beginning sometime in the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, the Gold Falcon name (sometimes called the Horus of Gold) was created. The last two names of the king, the prenomen and the nomen, were generally depicted within the circular, roped cartouche of the king (eventually the cartouche would contain all royal names, including the queen and the royal children) and were known as the Throne name and the Son of Re name. Horus name Main article: Horus name The Horus name is the oldest form of the pharaoh's name, originating in prehistoric Egypt. Many of the oldest-known Egyptian pharaohs were known only by this title. The Horus name was usually written in a serekh, a representation of a palace façade. The name of the pharaoh was written in hieroglyphs inside this representation of a palace. Typically an image of the falcon god Horus was perched on top of or beside it. At least one Egyptian ruler, the Second Dynasty pharoah Seth-Peribsen, used an image of the god Set instead of Horus, perhaps signifying an internal religious division within the country. He was succeeded by Khasekhemwy, who placed the symbols of both Set and Horus above his name. Thereafter, the image of Horus always appeared alongside the name of the pharaoh. By the time of the New Kingdom, the Horus name was often written without the enclosing serekh. Nebty ("two ladies") name Main article: Nebty name The Nebty name (lit. "two ladies") was associated with the so-called "heraldic" goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt: . Nekhbet, patron deity of Upper Egypt, represented by a vulture, and . Wadjet, patron deity of Lower Egypt, represented by a cobra. The name definitively ia used first by the First Dynasty pharaoh Semerkhet, though it only became a fully independent title by the Twelfth Dynasty. This particular name was not typically framed by a cartouche or serekh, but always begins with the hieroglyphs of a vulture and cobra resting upon two baskets, the dual noun "nebty." Horus of Gold Also known as the "Golden Horus Name," this form of the pharaoh's name typically featured the image of a Horus falcon perched above or beside the hieroglyph for gold. The meaning of this particular title has been disputed. One belief is that it represents the triumph of Horus over his uncle Seth, as the symbol for gold can be taken to mean that Horus was "superior to his foes." Gold also was strongly associated in the ancient Egyptian mind with eternity, so this may have been intended to convey the pharaoh's eternal Horus name. Similar to the Nebty name, this particular name typically was not framed by a cartouche or serekh. Throne name ("prenomen") Main article: Prenomen (Ancient Egypt) The pharaoh's throne name, the first of the two names written inside a cartouche, and usually accompanied the title "nsw-bity" ("nsw(t)-bjt(j)"), traditionally interpreted as "[He] of sedge [and] bee" and often translated for convenience as "King of Upper and of Lower Egypt," with the sedge and bee being symbols for Upper and Lower Egypt, respectively, although recent research has thrown this interpretation into doubt. The epithet "nb tꜣwy," "Lord of the Two Lands," referring to valley and delta regions of Egypt, often occurs as well. Personal name (nomen) Main article: Nomen (Ancient Egypt) This was the name given at birth. The name itself was preceded by the title "Son of Ra,, written with the hieroglyph of a duck ("za"), a homonym for the word meaning "son" ("za"), adjacent to an image of the sun, a hieroglyph for the chief solar deity Ra. It was first introduced to the set of royal titles in the Fourth Dynasty and emphasizes the king's role as a representative of the solar god Ra. For women who became pharaoh, the preceding title was interpreted as "daughter" also. Modern historians typically refer to the ancient kings of Egypt by this name, adding ordinals (e.g. "II", "III") to distinguish between different individuals bearing the same name. Examples of the full titulary Senusret I In the Middle Kingdom, the full titulary was sometimes written in a single cartouche, as in this example from Senusret I, from Beni Hasan. Hatshepsut The full titulary of Eighteenth Dynasty pharaoh Hatshepsut, providing a guide to pronunciation and its equivalent meaning and showing the differences since this pharaoh is a woman, is as follows, . Horus name: Wesretkau, "Mighty of Kas" . Nebty name: Wadjrenput, "She of the Two Ladies, Flourishing of years" . Golden Horus: Netjeretkhau, "Divine of appearance" (Netjeret is the feminine form of netery meaning 'godly' or 'divine', and khau, 'appearances') . Praenomen: Maatkare, "Truth [Ma'at] is the Ka of Re" . Nomen: Khnumt-Amun Hatshepsut, "Joined with Amun, Foremost of Noble Ladies" Thutmose III The full titulary of Eighteenth Dynasty pharaoh Thutmose III, providing a guide to pronunciation and its equivalent meaning, is as follows . Horus name: Kanakht Khaemwaset, "Horus Mighty Bull, Arising in Thebes" . Nebty name: Wahnesytmireempet, "He of the Two Ladies, Enduring in kingship like Re in heaven" . Golden Horus: Sekhempahtydjeserkhaw, "Horus of Gold Powerful of strength, Sacred of appearance" . Praenomen: Menkheperre, "He of the Sedge and the Bee, Enduring of form is Re" . Nomen: Thutmose Neferkheperu, "Son of Ra, Thutmose, beautiful of forms"
    
20. Title: Wikiwand: Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt;
    Note: The Twelfth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty XII) is often combined with the Eleventh, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties under the group title Middle Kingdom. Rulers Known rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty are as follows: Dynasty XII pharaohs of Egypt Name Horus (throne) name Date Pyramid Queen(s) Amenemhat I Sehetepibre 1991 – 1962 BC Pyramid of Amenemhet I Queen Neferitatjenen Senusret I (Sesostris I) Kheperkare 1971 – 1926 BC Pyramid of Senusret I Queen Neferu III Amenemhat II Nubkhaure 1929 – 1895 BC White Pyramid Queen Kaneferu Queen Keminub? Senusret II (Sesostris II) Khakheperre 1897 – 1878 BC Pyramid at El-Lahun Queen Khenemetneferhedjet I Queen Nofret II Queen Itaweret? Queen Khnemet Senusret III (Sesostris III) Khakaure 1878 – 1839 BC Pyramid at Dahshur Queen Meretseger Queen Neferthenut Queen Khnemetneferhedjet II Queen Sithathoriunet Amenemhat III Nimaatre 1860 – 1814 BC Black Pyramid; Pyramid at Hawara Queen Aat Queen Hetepi Queen Khenemetneferhedjet III Amenemhat IV Maakherure 1815 – 1806 BC Southern Mazghuna pyramid (conjectural) Queen Sobekneferu Sobekkare 1806 – 1802 BC Northern Mazghuna pyramid (conjectural) The chronology of the 12th dynasty is the most stable of any period before the New Kingdom. The Ramses Papyrus canon (1290 BC) in Turin gives 213 years (1991–1778 BC). Manetho stated that it was based in Thebes, but from contemporary records it is clear that the first king moved its capital to a new city named "Amenemhat-itj-tawy" ("Amenemhat the Seizer of the Two Lands"), more simply called Itjtawy. The location of Itjtawy has not been found, but is thought to be near the Fayyum, probably near the royal graveyards at el-Lisht. Egyptologists consider this dynasty to be the apex of the Middle Kingdom. The order of its rulers is well known from several sources — two lists recorded at temples in Abydos and one at Saqqara, as well as Manetho's work. A recorded date during the reign of Senusret III can be correlated to the Sothic cycle, consequently many events during this dynasty can be frequently assigned to a specific year. Amenemhat I and Senusret I This dynasty was founded by Amenemhat I, who may have been vizier to the last pharaoh of Dynasty XI, Mentuhotep IV. His armies campaigned south as far as the Second Cataract of the Nile and into southern Canaan. He also reestablished diplomatic relations with the Canaanite state of Byblos and Hellenic rulers in the Aegean Sea. His son Senusret I followed his father's triumphs with an expedition south to the Third Cataract, but the next rulers were content to live in peace until the reign of Senusret III. Senusret III Finding Nubia had grown restive under the previous rulers, Senusret sent punitive expeditions into that land; he also sent an expedition into the Levant. These military campaigns gave birth to a legend of a mighty warrior named Sesostris, a story retold by Manetho, Herodotus, and Diodorus Siculus. Manetho claimed the mythical Sesostris not only subdued the lands as had Senusret I, but also conquered parts of Canaan and had crossed over into Europe to annex Thrace. However, there are no records of the time, either in Egyptian or other contemporary writings that support these claims. Amenemhat III Senusret's successor Amenemhat III reaffirmed his predecessor's foreign policy. However, after Amenemhat, the energies of this dynasty were largely spent, and the growing troubles of government were left to the dynasty's last ruler, Queen Sobekneferu, to resolve. Amenemhat was remembered for the mortuary temple at Hawara that he built, known to Herodotus, Diodorus, and Strabo as the "Labyrinth." Additionally, under his reign, the marshy Fayyum was first exploited. Ancient Egyptian literature It was during the twelfth dynasty that Ancient Egyptian literature was refined. Perhaps the best known work from this period is "The Story of Sinuhe," of which several hundred papyrus copies have been recovered. Also written during this dynasty were a number of Didactic works, such as the "Instructions of Amenemhat" and "The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant." Pharaohs of Dynasties XII through XVIII are also credited with preserving for us some of the most remarkable Egyptian papyri: . 1900 BC – Prisse Papyrus . 1800 BC – Berlin Papyrus . 1800 BC – Moscow Mathematical Papyrus . 1650 BC – Rhind Mathematical Papyrus . 1600 BC – Edwin Smith papyrus . 1550 BC – Ebers papyrus
    
21. Title: Wikiwand: Karnak
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Karnak;
    Note: The Karnak Temple Complex, commonly known as Karnak (/ˈkɑːr.næk/, from Arabic "Khurnak," meaning "fortified village"), comprises a vast mix of decayed temples, chapels, pylons, and other buildings near Luxor, in Egypt. Construction at the complex began during the reign of Senusret I in the Middle Kingdom (around 2000-1700 BCE) and continued into the Ptolemaic period, although most of the extant buildings date from the New Kingdom. The area around Karnak was the ancient Egyptian "Ipet-isut" ("The Most Selected of Places") and the main place of worship of the eighteenth dynasty Theban Triad with the god Amun as its head. It is part of the monumental city of Thebes. The Karnak complex gives its name to the nearby, and partly surrounded, modern village of El-Karnak, 2.5 kilometers (1.6 miles) north of Luxor. Overview The complex is a vast open site and includes the Karnak Open Air Museum. It is believed to be the second[citation needed] most visited historical site in Egypt; only the Giza Pyramids near Cairo receive more visits. It consists of four main parts, of which only the largest is currently open to the general public. The term Karnak often is understood as being the Precinct of Amun-Ra only, because this is the only part most visitors see. The three other parts, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the dismantled Temple of Amenhotep IV, are closed to the public. There also are a few smaller temples and sanctuaries connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amun-Re, and the Luxor Temple. The Precinct of Mut is very ancient, being dedicated to an Earth and creation deity, but not yet restored. The original temple was destroyed and partially restored by Hatshepsut, although another pharaoh built around it in order to change the focus or orientation of the sacred area. Many portions of it may have been carried away for use in other buildings. The Precinct of Mut is very ancient, being dedicated to an Earth and creation deity, but not yet restored. The original temple was destroyed and partially restored by Hatshepsut, although another pharaoh built around it in order to change the focus or orientation of the sacred area. Many portions of it may have been carried away for use in other buildings. The key difference between Karnak and most of the other temples and sites in Egypt is the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction of temples started in the Middle Kingdom and continued into Ptolemaic times. Approximately thirty pharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to reach a size, complexity, and diversity not seen elsewhere. Few of the individual features of Karnak are unique, but the size and number of features are overwhelming. The deities represented range from some of the earliest worshiped to those worshiped much later in the history of the Ancient Egyptian culture. Although destroyed, it also contained an early temple built by Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten), the pharaoh who later would celebrate a near monotheistic religion he established that prompted him to move his court and religious center away from Thebes. It also contains evidence of adaptations, where the buildings of the Ancient Egyptians were used by later cultures for their own religious purposes. One famous aspect of Karnak is the Hypostyle Hall in the Precinct of Amun-Re, a hall area of 50,000 sq ft (5,000 m2) with 134 massive columns arranged in 16 rows. 122 of these columns are 10 meters tall, and the other 12 are 21 meters tall with a diameter of over three meters. The architraves on top of these columns are estimated to weigh 70 tons. These architraves may have been lifted to these heights using levers. This would be an extremely time-consuming process and also would require great balance to get to such great heights. A common alternative theory regarding how they were moved is that large ramps were constructed of sand, mud, brick or stone and that the stones were then towed up the ramps. If stone had been used for the ramps, they would have been able to use much less material. The top of the ramps presumably would have employed either wooden tracks or cobblestones for towing the megaliths. There is an unfinished pillar in an out-of-the-way location that indicates how it would have been finished. Final carving was executed after the drums were put in place so that it was not damaged while being placed. Several experiments moving megaliths with ancient technology were made at other locations – some of them are listed here. In 2009 UCLA launched a website dedicated to virtual reality digital reconstructions of the Karnak complex and other resources. The sun god's shrine has light focused upon it during the winter solstice. History Main article: History of the Karnak Temple complex The history of the Karnak complex is largely the history of Thebes and its changing role in the culture. Religious centers varied by region, and when a new capital of the unified culture was established, the religious centers in that area gained prominence. The city of Thebes does not appear to have been of great significance before the Eleventh Dynasty and previous temple building there would have been relatively small, with shrines being dedicated to the early deities of Thebes, the Earth goddess Mut and Montu. Early building was destroyed by invaders. The earliest known artifact found in the area of the temple is a small, eight-sided column from the Eleventh Dynasty, which mentions Amun-Re. Amun (sometimes called Amen) was long the local tutelary deity of Thebes. He was identified with the ram and the goose. The Egyptian meaning of Amun is, "hidden" or, the "hidden god." Major construction work in the Precinct of Amun-Re took place during the Eighteenth Dynasty when Thebes became the capital of the unified Ancient Egypt. Almost every pharaoh of that dynasty added something to the temple site. Thutmose I erected an enclosure wall connecting the Fourth and Fifth pylons, which comprise the earliest part of the temple still standing in situ. Hatshepsut had monuments constructed and also restored the original Precinct of Mut, the ancient great goddess of Egypt, that had been ravaged by the foreign rulers during the Hyksos occupation. She had twin obelisks, at the time the tallest in the world, erected at the entrance to the temple. One still stands, as the tallest surviving ancient obelisk on Earth; the other has broken in two and toppled. Another of her projects at the site, Karnak's Red Chapel, or "Chapelle Rouge," was intended as a barque shrine and originally may have stood between her two obelisks. She later ordered the construction of two more obelisks to celebrate her sixteenth year as pharaoh; one of the obelisks broke during construction, and thus, a third was constructed to replace it. The broken obelisk was left at its quarrying site in Aswan, where it still remains. Known as the unfinished obelisk, it provides evidence of how obelisks were quarried. Construction of the Hypostyle Hall also may have begun during the Eighteenth Dynasty (although most new building was undertaken under Seti I and Ramesses II in the Nineteenth). Merneptah, also of the Nineteenth Dynasty, commemorated his victories over the Sea Peoples on the walls of the Cachette Court, the start of the processional route to the Luxor Temple. The last major change to the Precinct of Amun-Re's layout was the addition of the First Pylon and the massive enclosure walls that surround the whole precinct, both constructed by Nectanebo I of the Thirtieth Dynasty. In 323 AD, Roman emperor Constantine the Great recognized the Christian religion, and in 356 Constantius II ordered the closing of pagan temples throughout the Roman empire, into which Egypt had been annexed in 30 BC. Karnak was by this time mostly abandoned, and Christian churches were founded among the ruins, the most famous example of this is the reuse of the Festival Hall of Thutmose III's central hall, where painted decorations of saints and Coptic inscriptions can still be seen. European knowledge of Karnak Thebes' exact placement was unknown in medieval Europe, though both Herodotus and Strabo give the exact location of Thebes and how long up the Nile one must travel to reach it. Maps of Egypt, based on the 2nd century Claudius Ptolemaeus' mammoth work "Geographia," had been circulating in Europe since the late 14th century, all of them showing Thebes' (Diospolis) location. Despite this, several European authors of the 15th and 16th centuries who visited only Lower Egypt and published their travel accounts, such as Joos van Ghistele and André Thévet, put Thebes in or close to Memphis. The Karnak temple complex is first described by an unknown Venetian in 1589, although his account gives no name for the complex. This account, housed in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, is the first known European mention, since ancient Greek and Roman writers, about a whole range of monuments in Upper Egypt and Nubia, including Karnak, Luxor temple, the.Colossi of Memnon, Esna, Edfu, Kom Ombo, Philae, and others. Karnak ("Carnac") as a village name, and name of the complex, is first attested in 1668, when two capuchin missionary brothers, Protais and Charles François d'Orléans, traveled though the area. Protais' writing about their travel was published by Melchisédech Thévenot ("Relations de divers voyages curieux," 1670s–1696 editions) and Johann Michael Vansleb ("The Present State of Egypt," 1678). The first drawing of Karnak is found in Paul Lucas' travel account of 1704, ("Voyage du Sieur Paul Lucas au Levant"). It is rather inaccurate, and can be quite confusing to modern eyes. Lucas traveled in Egypt during 1699–1703. The drawing shows a mixture of the Precinct of Amun-Re and the Precinct of Montu, based on a complex confined by the three huge Ptolemaic gateways of Ptolemy III Euergetes / Ptolemy IV Philopator, and the massive 113 m long, 43 m high and 15 m thick, First ..
    
22. Title: Wikiwand: Kim Ryholt
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Kim_Ryholt;
    Note: Kim Steven Bardrum Ryholt (born 19 June 1970) is a professor of Egyptology at the University of Copenhagen and a specialist on Egyptian history and literature. He is director of the research center Canon and Identity Formation in the Earliest Literate Societies under the University of Copenhagen Programme of Excellence (since 2008) and director of The Papyrus Carlsberg Collection & Project (since 1999). Research One of his most significant publications is a 1997 book titled "The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800-1550 B.C." Aidan Dodson, a prominent English Egyptologist, calls Ryholt's book "fundamental" for an understanding of the Second Intermediate Period because it reviews the political history of this period and contains an updated—and more accurate—reconstruction of the Turin Canon since the 1959 publication of Alan "Gardiner's Royal Canon of Egypt." It also contains an extensive catalog of all the known monuments, inscriptions and seals for the kings of this period. Ryholt also is a specialist on Demotic papyri and literature and has authored numerous books and articles about this subject. In 2011 he discovered the identity of the famous sage king Nechepsos. Since 2013 he has directed a project on ancient ink as technology. He also has written a book on antiquities trade with Fredrik Norland Hagen. Second Intermediate Period Ryholt's study makes note of numerous recent archaeological finds including the discovery of a new Hyksos king named Sakir-Har, the find of a doorjamb at Gebel Antef in the mid-1990s which establishes that Sekhemre Shedtawy Sobekemsaf (Sobekemsaf II here) was the father of the 17th Dynasty Theban kings Antef VI and Antef VII. He also discusses Ahmose's Unwetterstele document. The book also strongly argues that the Sixteenth dynasty of Egypt was made up of poorly attested Theban kings such as Nebiriau I, Nebiriau II, Seuserenre Bebiankh and Sekhemre Shedwast who are documented in the last surviving page of the Turin Canon rather than minor Hyksos vassal kings in Lower Egypt, as was generally believed. Among the most significant discussions is Ryholt's evidence that Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep rather than Ugaf was the first king of Egypt's 13th Dynasty, and a discussion of the foreign origins of the Semitic 13th Dynasty king named Khendjer—whose reign lasted a minimum of 4 years and 3 months based on dated workmen's control notes found on stone blocks from his pyramid complex. The most controversial conclusion concerns the identity and dating of 14th Dynasty. Ryholt - like Manfred Bietak - argues that it was a forerunner of the 15th Dynasty, but differs in regarding it as contemporary with the 13th Dynasty from the latter's founding around 1800 BC until its collapse in c. 1650/1648 BC. This is contested in review of the book by Daphna Ben Tor and James/Susan Allen. Ryholt's proposal that king Sheshi, 'Ammu Ahotepre and Yakbim Sekhaenre were also rulers of the 14th Dynasty is contradicted by Ben Tor's study of the known strata levels of their seals which, in her view, indicate that they date to the second half of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty and are not contemporary with the 13th dynasty. Sheshi, Yakbim and A'amu are more likely to be Hyksos vassal kings in the Delta. Therefore, not all of Ryholt's conclusions have been accepted by Egyptologists. Ryholt has since suggested that Sheshi, one of the best attested kings of the 14th Dynasty, was contemporary with the early 13th Dynasty on the basis of an archaeological deposit at Uronarti where a seal-impression of this king was found together with impressions of two early 13th dynasty Egyptian kings. However, Ben Tor has posited that the context of Maaibre Sheshi seal is not secure and that it was most likely a New Kingdom seal impression. According to Ben Tor, Reiser reported that "two additional seal fragments among the Uronarti sealings, most probably display Eighteenth Dynasty designs." This would corroborate the occurrence of 18th dynasty intrusions among the bulk of late Middle Kingdom seals at this site. The likelihood of New Kingdom intrusions into the Uronarti context "was confirmed by Yvonne Markowitz," and also "acknowledged by Reisner" notes Ben Tor. Therefore, the Uronarti context is not secure since it bears scarab seals bearing New Kingdom dynasty type which means that the Sheshi seals found there should not be used to date this Asiatic king to the early 13th dynasty. Ben Tor stresses that the use of Second Intermediate Period scarabs for sealing in the Eighteenth Dynasty is attested at Tell el-Dab'a, where a significant number of such examples were recently found in archaeological contexts dating from the reign of Thutmose III. Turin Canon Ryholt is regarded as a major scholar in the study of the Turin Canon, having examined the document in person twice; he has published new and better interpretations of this damaged papyrus document in his aforementioned 1997 book and in a ZAS paper titled "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris," and has published a detailed discussion of the nature of the document. Ryholt reportedly intends to publish his study of the Turin Kinglist in the near future. Selected publications . "The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800-1550 B.C." ("Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications." Vol. 20, ISSN 0902-5499). Copenhagen 1997, ISBN 87-7289-421-0. . "The Story of Petese son of Petetum, and Seventy Other Good and Bad Stories." ("The Carlsberg Papyri." Vol. 4, ISSN 0907-8118 = "Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications." Vol. 23, ISSN 0902-5499). Copenhagen 1999, ISBN 87-7289-527-6. . "The Petese Stories II" ("The Carlsberg Papyri." Vol. 6, ISSN 0907-8118 = Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications. Vol. 29, ISSN 0902-5499). Copenhagen 2005, ISBN 87-635-0404-9. . "Narrative Literature from the Tebtunis Temple Library" ("The Carlsberg Papyri." Vol. 10, ISSN 0907-8118 = "Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications." Vol. 35, ISSN 0902-5499). Copenhagen 2012, ISBN 978-87-635-0780-6. . (with T. Christiansen) "Catalogue of Egyptian Funerary Papyri in Danish Collections" ("The Carlsberg Papyri." Vol. 13, ISSN 0907-8118 = "Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications." Vol. 41, ISSN 0902-5499). Copenhagen 2016, ISBN 978-87-635-4374-3. . (with F. Hagen) "The Antiquities Trade in Egypt, 1880s-1930s: The H.O. Lange Papers (Scientia Danica. Series H, Humanistica," 4, Vol. 8, ISSN 1904-5506). Copenhagen 2016, ISBN 978-87-7304-400-1.
    
23. Title: Wikiwand: Pyramid of Senusret II
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Pyramid_of_Senusret_II;
    Note: The Pyramid of Senusret II, (in ancient Egyptian Kha Senusret meaning Senusret Shines), is the pyramid complex constructed for the pharaoh Senusret II in the Twelfth Dynasty. Location and early excavation Karl Richard Lepsius visited the pyramid in the 1840s and conducted a brief archaeological survey of the site. Fifty years later, Flinders Petrie conducted the first comprehensive excavations there. Petrie spent several unsuccessful months searching for the entrance into the pyramid on the north face of the pyramid. Senusret II had, however, taken a complete departure from the usual practice of having a corridor on the north side, – typical of Old Kingdom and early Middle Kingdom pyramids – and had instead built a narrow, vertical entrance shaft under a princess' tomb located about a dozen yards off to east of the southern pyramid face. The Czech Egyptologist Miroslav Verner explains that the decision had been made for a combination of religious reasons, and to thwart grave robbers. The builders had even constructed the usual small chapel on the north face, which typically concealed the entrance. Petrie did eventually find the entrance, after many months and multiple failed attempts. A small team headed by N. B. Millet of the Royal Ontario Museum and the architect J. E. Knudstad has been working at the site of the pyramid town and pyramid since 1989. Their goal is to expand on Petrie's work by re-gathering architectural details of the monuments there, which Petrie had neglected to record in his reports. On 28 June 2019, the pyramid was opened to visitors for the first time since its discovery. Mortuary complex Main pyramid The core of the pyramid was constructed from mudbrick around a stump of four steps of yellow limestone. The builders utilized a rock outcropping to anchor the pyramid and reduce construction time and cost. The completed pyramid was originally encased in white limestone, though an inscription found by Petrie indicates that the casing was removed in the Nineteenth Dynasty for reuse in a different structure built by Ramesses II. Only remnants of the black granite pyramidion, which topped the pyramid, have been found. The pyramid was protected from flooding by a trench surrounding the perimeter of the pyramid and filled with sand to absorb rainwater. Around this trench, a stone perimeter wall was built and decorated with deep niches. Substructure Typically, the substructure entry was located on the north face of the pyramid. This had been the traditional entry point since Djoser built his step pyramid in the Third Dynasty. Although Senusret II's pyramid was build with a north chapel included, its real entry was hidden-away under the floor of a princess' tomb to the south-east. This was used for the burial rites of the king, but was too narrow for use during construction. Instead, a larger 16 m (52 ft) deep construction shaft found further south was used for transporting the sarcophagus and building material into the substructure. This was then reworked into a fake burial chamber in an attempt to deceive thieves attempting to enter the king's tomb. The base of the construction shaft opens up into a vaulted horizontal corridor. The corridor runs north to a vaulted room, containing the real entry shaft and a second unexplored shaft that has been flooded by ground water. The corridor then continues north with a slight incline leading to the antechamber. Part way along, a second chamber is found in its west. The antechamber contained two passageways: one leads from the antechamber to the burial chamber directly west; the other, located in the south, leads around the chamber eventually entering it from the north. The winding passage may have served a symbolic purpose, allowing the king's spirit to the leave the chamber towards the north. The burial chamber and labyrinth of passageways were shifted south-east of the vertical axis of the pyramid, another deviation from the standard. The burial chamber is oriented on the east-west axis, has a vaulted ceiling made from granite blocks, and a red granite sarcophagus near its west wall. Despite the precautions taken, the burial chamber was found looted of most of its contents by Petrie. An alabaster offering table inscribed with Senusret II's name, a gold uraeus, and leg bones, believed to belong to the king, are all that remained of the burial.
    
24. Title: Wikiwand: Amenemhat III
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Amenemhat_III;
    Note: Amenemhat III, also spelled Amenemhet III, was a pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from c. 1860 BC to c. 1814 BC, the highest known date being found in a papyrus dated to "Regnal Year 46, I Akhet 22" of his rule. His reign is regarded as the golden age of the Middle Kingdom. He may have had a long coregency (of 20 years) with his father, Senusret III. Toward the end of his reign he instituted a coregency with his successor Amenemhet IV, as recorded in a now damaged rock inscription at Konosso in Nubia, which equates Year 1 of Amenemhet IV to either Year 46, 47, or 48 of his reign. His daughter, Sobekneferu, later succeeded Amenemhat IV, as the last ruler of the twelfth dynasty. Amenemhat III's throne name, Nimaatre, means "Belonging to the Justice of Re." Pyramids He built his first pyramid at Dahshur (the so-called "Black Pyramid"), but there were construction problems and it was abandoned. Around Year 15 of his reign the king decided to build a new pyramid at Hawara, near the Faiyum. The pyramid at Dahshur was used as burial ground for several royal women. The mortuary temple attached to the Hawara pyramid may have been known to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus as the "Labyrinth." Strabo praised it as a wonder of the world. The king's pyramid at Hawara contained some of the most complex security features of any found in Egypt. Nevertheless, the king's burial was robbed in antiquity. His daughter or sister, Neferuptah, was buried in a separate pyramid (discovered in 1956) 2 km southwest of the king's. The pyramidion of Amenemhet III's pyramid tomb was found toppled from the peak of its structure and preserved relatively intact; it is today in the Cairo Egyptian Museum. Military enterprises and expeditions There is very little evidence for military expeditions in the reign of the king. There is one record for a small mission in year nine of the king. The evidence for that was found in a rock inscription in Nubia, near the fortress of Kumma. The short text reports that a military mission was guided by the "mouth of Nekhen" Zamonth who reports that he went north with a small troop and that nobody died when going back south. Many expeditions to mining areas are recorded under the king. There are two expeditions known to the Wadi el-Hudi at the southern border of Egypt, where Amethyst was collected. One of the enterprises dates to year 11, of the king. Two further to year 20 and to year 28. There were further mining expeditions to the Wadi Hammamat. These are dated to year 2, 3, 19, 20 and 33 of the king's reign. The inscriptions of year 19 and 20 might be related to the building start of the pyramid complex at Hawara. They report the breaking of stone for statues. At the Red Sea coast, at Mersa was discovered a stela mentioning an expedition to Punt under Amenemhat III. The highest official involved in the expedition was the high steward Senebef. Other people in charge were a certain Amenhotep and the "chamberlain" Nebesu. The Great Canal (Mer-Wer) During his long rule Amenemhat continued the work probably started by his father to link the Fayum Depression with the Nile. The area had been a mere swamp previously. A canal 16 kilometers (9.9 mi) long and 1.5 kilometers (0.93 mi) wide was dug, known as Mer-Wer (the Great Canal); it is now known as Bahr Yussef. The banks for the central deep side were at a slope of 1:10, to allow use of non-cohesive soil and rock fill. A dam called Ha-Uar ran east–west, and the canal was inclined towards the Fayum depression at the slope of 0.01 degrees. The resultant Lake Moeris could store 13 billion cubic meters of flood water each year. This immense work of civil engineering was eventually finished by his son Amenemhat IV and brought prosperity to Fayum. The area became a breadbasket for the country and continued to be used until 230 BC when the Lahun branch of the Nile silted up. The vizier Kheti held this office around year 29 of king Amenemhat III's reign. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is thought to have been originally composed during Amenemhat's time. The monuments of Amenemhat III are fairly numerous and of excellent quality. They include a small but well decorated temple at Medinet Madi in the Faiyum, which he and his father dedicated to the harvest goddess Renenutet. Sculpture Amenemhat III is, together with Senusret III, the best-attested Middle Kingdom king by number of statues. About 80 statues or fragments of statues can be assigned to him. The sculpture of Amenemhat III continued the tradition of Senusret III. Many of his works no longer represent a young idealized king, but instead an expressive physiognomy, showing signs of age. There is an amazingly wide range of stones used for the sculpture of the king, not attested for any king before. Furthermore, the king introduced several new types of sculptures, many of these types inspired by older prototypes, dating back to the early Dynastic Period. There are two facial types that can be assigned to Amenemhat III. . realistic style: The face of the king shows its bone structure, furrows are clearly marked in the face. The face features are evidently inspired by those of the sculpture of Senusret III . idealized style: The king is shown as young man, with a triangular face. Other names . Ammenemes . Lamares, Ameres (According to Manetho) . Moeris (According to Herodotus)
    
25. Title: Wikiwand: Khenemetneferhedjet I
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Khenemetneferhedjet_I;
    Note: Khenemetneferhedjet I Weret was an ancient Egyptian queen of the 12th Dynasty, a wife of Senusret II and the mother of Senusret III. Biography She likely is the same person who is mentioned as the daughter of Amenemhat II on a seal (now located in New York). This would mean she was the sister of her husband. She and Nofret II have been identified definitely as two of the queen consorts of Senusret II; two other possible wives are Khenemet and Itaweret. All were also his sisters. Her name was also a queenly title used in the era: "khenemetneferhedjet" means "united with the white crown." Her additional name "Weret" means "great" or "the elder" and probably was used to differentiate her from others with this name. She is mentioned on a seal found in Kahun (now located in Tonbridge), a papyrus from Kahun (now located in Berlin), a statue (now located in the British Museum) and in her son's pyramid complex. She probably was buried in the Kahun pyramid complex built by her husband. Her titles were: "King's Wife"; "King's Mother"; "Lady of the Two Lands"; "King's Daughter" (the latter only if she is the same person as the princess named on the seal of Amenemhat II).
    
26. Title: Wikiwand: Amenemhat II
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Amenemhat_II;
    Note: Nubkaure Amenemhat II was the third pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. Although he ruled for at least 35 years, his reign is rather obscure, as well as his family relationships. Family Archaeological findings have provided the name of Amenemhat's mother, the "king's mother" Neferu III, but not the name of his father. Nevertheless, it is commonly assumed that he was a son of his predecessor Senusret I. An early attestation of Amenemhat may have come from the tomb of the namesake nomarch Amenemhat, buried at Beni Hasan This nomarch, who lived under Senusret I, escorted the "King's son Ameny" in an expedition to Nubia, and it is believed that this prince Ameny was no other than Amenemhat II in his youth. The identity of Amenemhat's queen consort is unknown. Many royal women were buried within his pyramid complex, but their relationships with the king are unclear: a queen Keminub must be dated to the later 13th Dynasty, and three "king's daughters" named Ita, Itaweret, and Khenmet may have been Amenemhat's daughters, although a definitive proof is still lacking. His successor Senusret II likely was his son, although this is never explicitly stated anywhere. Other children were prince Amenemhatankh and the princesses Nofret II and Khenemetneferhedjet, likely the same person of Khenemetneferhedjet I; both those ladies later became wives of their purported brother Senusret II. Reign Accession Amenemhat II once was believed to have shared a period of coregency with his predecessor Senusret I, an hypothesis based on the double-dated stela of an official named Wepwawetō (Leiden, V4) that bears the regnal year 44 of Senusret I and the regnal year 2 of Amenemhat II. The existence of such coregency is now considered unlikely and the meaning of the double-date on the stela is interpreted as a time range when Wepwawetō was in charge, from Senusret I's year 44 to Amenemhat II's year 2. Account of reign The most important record for Amenemhat's early reign is on fragments of the so-called "Annals of Amenemhat II" unearthed at Memphis (later reused during the 19th Dynasty). It provides records of donations to temples and, sometimes, of political events. Among the latter, there is a mention of a military expedition into Asia, the destruction of two cities – Iuai and Iasy – whose location is still unknown, and the coming of tribute-bearers from Asia and Kush. Under Amenemhat II several mining expeditions are known: at least 3 in the Sinai, one in the Wadi Gasus (year 28) and one in search for amethysts in the Wadi el-Hudi. He is known to have ordered building works at Heliopolis, Herakleopolis, Memphis, in the Eastern Delta, and rebuilt a ruined temple at Hermopolis. There are some mentions of the building of a "First temple" but it still is unclear what it should have been. A well-known finding associated with Amenemhat II is the Great Sphinx of Tanis (Louvre A23), later usurped by many other pharaohs. He is also named on the boxes of a treasure of silver objects found under the temple of Montu at Tod: notably, many of these objects are not of Egyptian workmanship but rather Aegean, evidencing contacts between Egypt and foreign civilizations in the Middle Kingdom. Many private stelae bears Amenemhat's cartouches – and sometimes even his regnal years – but are of little help in providing useful information about the events of his reign. Court officials Some members of Amenemhat's court are known. Senusret was the vizier at the beginning of his reign, and one of his successors was Ameny, later likely followed by Siese who had a remarkable career and also was a treasurer and a high steward before his vizierate. Beside Siese, other known treasurers were Rehuerdjersen and Merykau. The "overseer of the gateway," Khentykhetywer, was buried near the king's pyramid. Other known officials were the "overseers of the chamber," Snofru and Senitef, and the royal scribe and "iry-pat" Samont. As "great overseer of troops," a certain Ameny dates most likely under the king. Succession Amenemhat II and his successor Senusret II shared a brief coregency, the only unquestionable one of the whole Middle Kingdom. Unlike most of the double-dated monuments, the stela of Hapu from Konosso explicitly states that these two kings ruled together for a while and that the regnal year 3 of Senusret II equates the regnal year 35 of Amenemhat II. Amenemhat's year 35 on the stela of Hapu is also the highest date known for him. Tomb Main article: White Pyramid Unlike his two predecessors who built their pyramids at Lisht, Amenemhat II chose Dahshur for this purpose, a location that was no longer used as royal cemetery after the time of Sneferu and his Red Pyramid (4th Dynasty). At the present time, Amenemhat's pyramid – originally called "Amenu-sekhem," but best known today as the White Pyramid – is poorly preserved and excavated. The mortuary temple adjacent the pyramid was called "Djefa-Amenemhat." Many people were buried within the pyramid complex, the tombs of whom were rediscovered by Jacques de Morgan in 1894/5: the three aforementioned princesses Ita, Itaweret, and Khenmet were found untouched, still containing their beautiful jewels, and also the tombs of the lady Sathathormeryt, the treasurer Amenhotep, and the queen Keminub. Unlike the others, the latter two were looted in antiquity and are dated to the subsequent 13th Dynasty.
    
27. Title: Wikiwand: Beni Hasan
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Beni_Hasan;
    Note: Beni Hasan (also written as Bani Hasan, or also Beni-Hassan) (Arabic: بني حسن‎) is an Ancient Egyptian cemetery site. It is located approximately 20 kilometers (12 mi) to the south of modern-day Minya in the region known as Middle Egypt, the area between Asyut and Memphis. While there are some Old Kingdom burials at the site, it was primarily used during the Middle Kingdom, spanning the 21st to 17th centuries BCE (Middle Bronze Age). To the south of the cemetery is a temple constructed by Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, dedicated to the local goddess Pakhet. It is known as the "Cave of Artemis," because the Greeks identified Pakhet with Artemis, and the temple is subterranean. Cemetery Provincial governors in the Middle Kingdom continued to be buried in decorated rock-cut tombs in their local cemeteries, carried over from the First Intermediate Period, at sites such as Beni Hasan. There is evidence of a re-organization of the system of government during the 12th Dynasty. During the First Intermediate Period and for some of the Middle Kingdom period it was common for Nomarchs (someone who oversees/controls a government specified area) to be hereditary positions; the elite did not depend on the king to legitimize their power as much as they had in the Old Kingdom. In the 12th Dynasty the power of the Nomarchs began to be curtailed, and provincial governors were appointed or at least confirmed by the king. There are 39 ancient tombs here of Middle Kingdom (ca. 21st to 19th centuries BC) nomarchs of the Oryx nome, who governed from Hebenu. Due to the quality of, and distance to the cliffs in the west, these tombs were constructed on the east bank. There is a spatial distribution in this cemetery (there are two cemeteries here: the upper range and the lower necropolis) associated with the different levels of resources available to the deceased; the most important people were buried near the top of the cliff. In the lower cemetery there are 888 shaft tombs, dating to the Middle Kingdom, that were excavated by John Garstang; for the most part these tombs shared a similar general design which included a small chamber or recess at the foot of the shaft (facing south) to receive the coffin and the funeral deposits. In the upper cemetery members of the elite class built striking tombs to represent their social and political positions as the rulers and officials of the Oryx Nome, which is the 16th Nome of Upper Egypt. At this site, the provincial high elite were buried in large and elaborately decorated tombs carved into the limestone cliffs near the provincial capital, located in the upper cemetery area. These tombs lie in a row on a north-south axis. There is a slight break in the natural rock terrace, on to which they open, that divides the thirty-nine high status tombs into two groups. The basic design of these elite tombs was an outer court and a rock-cut pillared room (sometimes referred to as the chapel) in which there was a shaft that led to the burial chamber. Some of the larger tombs have biographical inscriptions and were painted with scenes of daily life and warfare. They are famous for the quality of their paintings. Nowadays, many of these scenes are in poor condition, though in the 19th century copies were made of several of them. Notable tombs Four out of the 39 tombs are accessible to the public. Notable tombs are: . Tomb 2 – Amenemhat, known as Ameny, nomarch under Senusret I (accessible). . Tomb 3 – Khnumhotep II, notable for the depiction of caravans of Semitic traders (accessible). . Tomb 4 – Khnumhotep IV, nomarch during the late 12th Dynasty (closed). . Tomb 13 – Khnumhotep, royal scribe during the 12th Dynasty (closed). . Tomb 14 – Khnumhotep I, nomarch under Amenemhat I (closed). . Tomb 15 – Baqet III, notable for the depiction of wrestling techniques (accessible). . Tomb 17 – Khety, nomarch during the 11th Dynasty, son of Baqet; notable for depiction of what may be ball games (accessible). . Tomb 21 – Nakht, nomarch during the 12th Dynasty (closed). . Tomb 23 – Netjernakht, overseer of the Eastern Desert during the 12th dynasty (closed). . Tomb 27 – Ramushenty, nomarch during the 11th Dynasty (closed). . Tomb 29 – Baqet I, nomarch during the 11th Dynasty (closed). . Tomb 33 – Baqet II, nomarch during the 11th Dynasty (closed).