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Šagarakti-Šuriaš , 27th King of the Kassites


Preferred Parents:
Father: Kudur-Enlil , 26th King of the Kassites,   d. 1246 BC in Dūr-Kurigalzu, Babylonia
Mother: Kudur-Enlil I of BABYLON,   

Family 1: daughter of Kastiliash OF BABYLON,      
  1. Kaštiliašu , 28th King of the Kassites IV, b. 1260 BC     d. 1237 BC
Sources:
  1. Title: Wikiwand: Kudur-Enlil
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.familysearch.org/tree/person/sources/G7MH-4PS;
    Note: Kudur-Enlil, rendered in cuneiform as "Ku-dur dEN.LÍL" (c. 1254–1246 BC short chronology), "son of Enlil,"was the 26th king of the 3rd or Kassite dynasty of Babylon. He reigned into his ninth year, as attested in contemporary economic tablets. His relationship with his predecessor and successor is uncertain and does not appear in contemporary inscriptions. The personal name “Marduk is king of the gods” first appears during his reign marking the deity’s ascendancy to the head of the pantheon. Biography He succeeded Kadašman-Enlil II and was possibly the first Kassite king to have a wholly Babylonian name, or one containing an Elamite derived word, from kudurru, which might be middle Assyrian. Although the Babylonian King List A records him as son of Kadašman-Enlil, it is a late source and no contemporary inscriptions exist which support this contention. It has been suggested that he may in fact have been the brother of Kadašman-Enlil, as his predecessor ascended the throne as a child and ruled perhaps nine years. A "daughter of Babylon" was married into the Hittite royal family, possibly to Tudhaliya IV, a younger son of Ḫattušili III who went on to succeed him. This would have been a daughter or sister of Kudur-Enlil and the news elicited contempt from Ramesses II, king of Egypt, who apparently no longer regarded Babylon significant. Pudu-Ḫepa, the Hittite queen, replied in a letter, "If you say 'the king of Babylon is not a Great King,' then you do not know the status of Babylon." Nippur renaissance Nippur experienced explosive growth under Kudur-Enlil and his successor, with the city expanding almost to its Ur III extent. Kudur-Enlil extensively refurbished the Enlil Temple in Nippur, with its baked-brick bench or socle lining the base of all except the northeast outer walls. The later period of construction is witnessed by his stamped brick inscriptions which describe him as a benefactor of the temple. A brick of Kudur-Enlil bearing a twelve-line Sumerian inscription which was found inside the temple states that he built the supporting wall with bitumen and baked bricks. It was customary for the king to travel to Nippur at the "beginning of the year" for the Akitu spring festival and there is an example of a record of the "return of the crown prince" in the third year of Kudur-Enlil. His name appears on various votive and civic monument inscriptions, as well as on numerous economic texts, such as a legal text about the escape and capture of a slave and a note of payment for mat-makers. The extent to which the number of texts extant reflects the degree of economic activity is disputed, possibly more due to fortuitous discovery of archives, however, more than 270 have been recovered, 70 recently published from an archive from Dūr-Enlilē, dated for a reign of only nine years. Other Babylonian centers Excavations at `Aqar-Qūf, ancient Dūr-Kurigalzu revealed in level II inscriptions of the time of Kudur-Enlil and the later king Kaštiliašu IV, showing that this city continued to be occupied by Kassite kings long after its foundation by Kurigalzu I. There are one or two administrative records amongst a cache of 64 from the palace dated to him. A private archive from Babylon of seven clay tablets in a pot includes legal texts dated to his reign. A Kudurru stone, found at Larsa, recorded a land grant and tax exemptions, or "zakûtu." Inscriptions 1. ^ "Babylonian King List A," BM 33332, ii 5: a broken and badly worn tablet in the British Museum, also errs with respect to the length of his reign, 6 years rather than 9 proven by economic texts, after Brinkman MSKH I p. 430. 2. ^ KUB 21.38: letter from Pudu-Ḫepa. 3. ^ Stamped bricks IM 56097 and IM 61767 in the National Museum of Iraq and more than forty others. 4. ^ 5 NT 700, now in the Iraq Museum. 5. ^ Tablets BM 17626 and BM 17710. 6. ^ Kudurru L. 7076 land grant and tax exemptions.
  2. Title: Wikiwand: Hittites
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Hittites;
    Note: The Hittites (/ˈhɪtaɪts/) were an Anatolian people who played an important role in establishing an empire centered on Hattusa in north-central Anatolia around 1600 BC. This empire reached its height during the mid-14th century BC under Suppiluliuma I, when it encompassed an area that included most of Anatolia as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. Between the 15th and 13th centuries BC, the Empire of Hattusa, conventionally called the Hittite Empire, came into conflict with the Egyptian Empire, Middle Assyrian Empire and the empire of the Mitanni for control of the Near East. The Assyrians eventually emerged as the dominant power and annexed much of the Hittite empire, while the remainder was sacked by Phrygian newcomers to the region. After c. 1180 BC, during the Bronze Age collapse, the Hittites splintered into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some of which survived until the 8th century BC before succumbing to the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Hittite language was a distinct member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family, and along with the related Luwian language, is the oldest historically attested Indo-European language, referred to by its speakers as "nešili" "in the language of Nesa." The Hittites called their country the "Kingdom of Hattusa" (Hatti in Akkadian), a name received from the Hattians, an earlier people who inhabited the region until the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC and spoke an unrelated language known as Hattic. The conventional name "Hittites" is due to their initial identification with the Biblical Hittites in 19th century archaeology. The history of the Hittite civilization is known mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their kingdom, and from diplomatic and commercial correspondence found in various archives in Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt and the Middle East, the decipherment of which was also a key event in the history of Indo-European linguistics. The Hittite military made successful use of chariots. The development of iron smelting once was attributed to the Hittites of Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age, with their success largely based on the advantages of a monopoly on ironworking at the time. But the view of such a "Hittite monopoly" has come under scrutiny and is no longer a scholarly consensus. As part of the Late-Bronze-Age/Early-Iron-Age, the Bronze Age collapse saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places during the period; and only a small number of these objects are weapons. Hittites did not use smelted iron, but rather meteorites. In classical times, ethnic Hittite dynasties survived in small kingdoms scattered around modern Syria, Lebanon and Israel. Lacking a unifying continuity, their descendants scattered and ultimately merged into the modern populations of the Levant, Turkey and Mesopotamia. During the 1920s, interest in the Hittites increased with the founding of the modern Republic of Turkey and attracted the attention of Turkish archaeologists such as Halet Çambel and Tahsin Özgüç. During this period, the new field of Hittitology also influenced the naming of Turkish institutions, such as the state-owned "Etibank" ("Hittite bank"), and the foundation of the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara, 200 kilometers west of the Hittite capital and housing the most comprehensive exhibition of Hittite art and artifacts in the world. Archaeological discovery Biblical background See also: Biblical Hittites Before the archeological discoveries that revealed the Hittite civilization, the only source of information about the Hittites had been the Old Testament. Francis William Newman expressed the critical view, common in the early 19th century, that, "no Hittite king could have compared in power to the King of Judah...". As the discoveries in the second half of the 19th century revealed the scale of the Hittite kingdom, Archibald Sayce asserted that, rather than being compared to Judah, the Anatolian civilization "[was] worthy of comparison to the divided Kingdom of Egypt," and was "infinitely more powerful than that of Judah." Sayce and other scholars also noted that Judah and the Hittites were never enemies in the Hebrew texts; in the Book of Kings, they supplied the Israelites with cedar, chariots, and horses, and in the Book of Genesis were friends and allies to Abraham. Uriah the Hittite was a captain in King David's army and counted as one of his "mighty men" in 1 Chronicles 11. Initial discoveries French scholar Charles Texier found the first Hittite ruins in 1834 but did not identify them as such. The first archaeological evidence for the Hittites appeared in tablets found at the "karum" of Kanesh (now called Kültepe), containing records of trade between Assyrian merchants and a certain "land of 'Hatti.'" Some names in the tablets were neither Hattic nor Assyrian, but clearly Indo-European. The script on a monument at Boğazkale by a "People of Hattusas" discovered by William Wright in 1884 was found to match peculiar hieroglyphic scripts from Aleppo and Hama in Northern Syria. In 1887, excavations at Amarna in Egypt uncovered the diplomatic correspondence of Pharaoh Amenhotep III and his son, Akhenaten. Two of the letters from a "kingdom of 'Kheta'"—apparently located in the same general region as the Mesopotamian references to "land of 'Hatti'"—were written in standard Akkadian cuneiform, but in an unknown language; although scholars could interpret its sounds, no one could understand it. Shortly after this, Sayce proposed that "Hatti" or "Khatti" in Anatolia was identical with the "kingdom of 'Kheta'" mentioned in these Egyptian texts, as well as with the biblical Hittites. Others, such as Max Müller, agreed that "Khatti" was probably "Kheta," but proposed connecting it with Biblical Kittim rather than with the Biblical Hittites. Sayce's identification came to be widely accepted over the course of the early 20th century; and the name "Hittite" has become attached to the civilization uncovered at Boğazköy. During sporadic excavations at Boğazköy (Hattusa) that began in 1906, the archaeologist Hugo Winckler found a royal archive with 10,000 tablets, inscribed in cuneiform Akkadian and the same unknown language as the Egyptian letters from Kheta—thus confirming the identity of the two names. He also proved that the ruins at Boğazköy were the remains of the capital of an empire that, at one point, controlled northern Syria. Under the direction of the German Archaeological Institute, excavations at Hattusa have been under way since 1907, with interruptions during the world wars. Kültepe was successfully excavated by Professor Tahsin Özgüç from 1948 until his death in 2005. Smaller scale excavations have also been carried out in the immediate surroundings of Hattusa, including the rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, which contains numerous rock reliefs portraying the Hittite rulers and the gods of the Hittite pantheon. Writings The Hittites used a variation of cuneiform called Hittite cuneiform. Archaeological expeditions to Hattusa have discovered entire sets of royal archives on cuneiform tablets, written either in Akkadian, the diplomatic language of the time, or in the various dialects of the Hittite confederation. Museums The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara, Turkey houses the richest collection of Hittite and Anatolian artifacts. Geography Main article: Hittite sites The Hittite kingdom was centered on the lands surrounding Hattusa and Neša (Kültepe), known as "the land Hatti" (URUHa-at-ti). After Hattusa was made capital, the area encompassed by the bend of the Kızılırmak River (Hittite "Marassantiya") was considered the core of the Empire, and some Hittite laws make a distinction between "this side of the river" and "that side of the river." For example, the reward for the capture of an escaped slave after he managed to flee beyond the Halys is higher than that for a slave caught before he could reach the river. To the west and south of the core territory lay the region known as "Luwiya" in the earliest Hittite texts. This terminology was replaced by the names Arzawa and Kizzuwatna with the rise of those kingdoms. Nevertheless, the Hittites continued to refer to the language that originated in these areas as Luwian. Prior to the rise of Kizzuwatna, the heart of that territory in Cilicia was first referred to by the Hittites as Adaniya. Upon its revolt from the Hittites during the reign of Ammuna, it assumed the name of Kizzuwatna and successfully expanded northward to encompass the lower Anti-Taurus Mountains as well. To the north, lived the mountainous people called the Kaskians. To the southeast of the Hittites lay the Hurrian empire of Mitanni. At its peak, during the reign of Muršili II, the Hittite empire stretched from Arzawa in the west to Mitanni in the east, many of the Kaskian territories to the north including Hayasa-Azzi in the far north-east, and on south into Canaan approximately as far as the southern border of Lebanon, incorporating all of these territories within its domain. History Origins It generally is assumed that the Hittites came into Anatolia some time before 2000 BC. While their earlier location is disputed, it has been speculated by scholars for more than a century that the Yamnaya culture of the Pontic–Caspian steppe, in present-day Ukraine, around the Sea of Azov, spoke an early Indo-European language during the third and fourth millennia BC. The arrival of the Hittites in Anatolia in the Bronze Age was one of a superstrate imposing itself on a native culture (in this case over the pre-existing Hattians and Hurrians), either by means of conquest or by gradual assimilation. In archaeological terms, relationships of the Hittites to the Ezero culture of the B..
  3. Title: Wikiwand: Short chronology
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Short_chronology;
    Note: The short chronology is one of the chronologies of the Near Eastern Bronze and Early Iron Age, which fixes the reign of Hammurabi to 1728–1686 BC and the sack of Babylon to 1531 BC. The absolute 2nd millennium BC dates resulting from these reference points have very little academic support, and have essentially been disproved by recent dendrochronology research. The "middle chronology" (reign of Hammurabi 1792–1750 BC) is more commonly accepted in academic literature. For much of the period in question, middle chronology dates can be calculated by adding 64 years to the corresponding short chronology date (e.g. 1728 BC in short chronology corresponds to 1792 in middle chronology). After the so-called "dark age" between the fall of Babylon and the rise of the Kassite dynasty in Babylonia, absolute dating becomes less uncertain. While exact dates are still not agreed upon, the 64-year middle/short chronology gap ceases from the beginning of the Third Babylon Dynasty onward. Early Bronze Age Estimation of absolute dates becomes possible for the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. For the first half of the 3rd millennium, only very rough chronological matching of archaeological dates with written records is possible. Kings of Ebla Main article: Ebla The city-states of Ebla and Mari (in modern Syria) competed for power at this time. Eventually, under Irkab-Damu, Ebla defeated Mari for control of the region just in time to face the rise of Uruk and Akkad. After years of back and forth, Ebla was destroyed by the Akkadian Empire. Pottery seals of the Egyptian pharaoh Pepi I have been found in the wreckage of the city. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Igrish-Halam c. 2300 BC Irkab-Damu Contemporary of Iblul-Il of Mari Ar-Ennum or Reshi-Ennum Ibrium or Ebrium Contemporary of Tudiya of Assyria (treaty) Ibbi-Sipish or Ibbi-Zikir Son of Ibrium Dubuhu-Ada Ebla destroyed by Naram-Sin of Akkad or Sargon of Akkad Sumer Further information: Sumerian king list Third Dynasty of Uruk Further information: Uruk Lugal-zage-si of Umma rules from Uruk after defeating Lagash, eventually falling to the emerging Akkadian Empire. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Lugal-zage-si 2295–2271 BC Defeats Urukagina of Lagash and is in turn defeated by Sargon of Akkad Dynasty of Akkad Further information: Akkad Since Akkad (or Agade), the capital of the Akkadian Empire, has not yet been found, available chronological data comes from outlying locations like Ebla, Tell Brak, Nippur, Susa and Tell Leilan. Clearly, the expansion of Akkad came under the rules of Sargon and Naram-sin. Its last king, Shar-kali-sharri barely held the empire together, but upon his death, it fragmented. Finally, the city of Akkad itself was destroyed by the Guti. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Sargon 2270–2215 BC Rimush 2214–2206 BC Son of Sargon Man-ishtishu 2205–2191 BC Son of Sargon Naram-sin 2190–2154 BC Grandson of Sargon Shar-kali-sharri 2153–2129 BC Son of Naram-sin Irgigi Nanum Imi Ilulu Dudu 2125–2104 BC Shu-Durul 2104–2083 BC City of Akkad falls to the Guti Gutian Kings Further information: Gutian dynasty of Sumer First appearing in the area during the reign of Sargon of Akkad, the Guti became a regional power after the decline of the Akkadian Empire following Shar-kali-sharri. The dynasty ends with the defeat of the last king, Tirigan, by Uruk. Only a handful of the Guti kings are attested to by inscriptions, aside from the Sumerian king list. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Erridupizir 2141–2138 BC Royal inscription at Nippur Imta or Nibia (There is no king for 3 or 5 years) 2138–2135 BC Inkishush 2135–2129 BC First Gutian ruler on the Sumerian king list Sarlagab 2129–2126 BC Shulme 2126–2120 BC Elulmesh or Silulumesh 2120–2114 BC Inimabakesh 2114–2109 BC Igeshaush or Igeaus 2109–2103 BC Yarlagab or Yarlaqaba 2103–2088 BC Ibate 2088–2085 BC Yarlangab or Yarla 2085–2082 BC Kurum 2082–2081 BC Apilkin or Habil-kin or Apil-kin 2081–2078 BC La-erabum 2078–2076 BC Mace head inscription Irarum 2076–2074 BC Ibranum 2074–2073 BC Hablum 2073–2071 BC Puzur-Suen 2071–2064 BC Son of Hablum Yarlaganda 2064–2057 BC Foundation inscription at Umma Si-um or Si-u 2057–2050 BC Foundation inscription at Umma Tirigan 2050–2050 BC Contemporary of Utu-hengal of Uruk Second Dynasty of Lagash Further information: Lagash Following the collapse of the Akkadian Empire after Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad under pressure from the invading Gutians, Lagash gradually regained prominence. As a client state to the Gutian Kings, Lagash was extremely successful, peaking under the rule of Gudea. After the last Gutian king, Tirigan, was defeated, by Utu-hengal, Lagash came under the control of Ur under Ur-Namma. Note that there is some indication that the order of the last two rulers of Lagash should be reversed. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Lugalushumgal ca. 2140 ruled under Gutian kings Puzer-Mama Ur-Utu Ur-Mama Lu-Baba Lugula Kaku or Kakug ended 2093 Ur-Bau or Ur-baba 2093–2080 BC Gudea 2080–2060 BC Son-in-law of Ur-baba Ur-Ningirsu 2060–2055 BC Son of Gudea Pirigme or Ugme 2055–2053 BC Grandson of Gudea Ur-gar 2053–2049 BC Nammahani 2049–2046 BC Grandson of Kaku, defeated by Ur-Namma Fifth Dynasty of Uruk Further information: Uruk Uniting various Sumerian city-states, Utu-hengal frees the region from the Gutians. Note that the Sumerian king list records a preceding 4th Dynasty of Uruk which is as yet unattested. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Utu-hengal 2055–2048 BC Appoints Ur-Namma as governor of Ur Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) Main article: Third Dynasty of Ur In an apparently peaceful transition, Ur came to power after the end of the reign of Utu-hengal of Uruk, with the first king, Ur-Namma, solidifying his power with the defeat of Lagash. By the dynasty's end with the destruction of Ur by Elamites and Shimashki, the dynasty included little more than the area around Ur. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Ur-Namma or Ur-Engur 2047–2030 BC Defeated Nammahani of Lagash; Contemporary of Utu-hengal of Uruk Shulgi 2029–1982 BC Possible lunar/solar eclipse 2005 BC Amar-Suena 1981–1973 BC Son of Shulgi Shu-Suen 1972–1964 BC Ibbi-Suen 1963–1940 BC Son of Shu-Suen Middle Bronze Age The Old Assyrian / Old Babylonian period (20th to 15th centuries) First Dynasty of Isin Further information: Isin After Ishbi-Erra of Isin breaks away from the declining Third Dynasty of Ur under Ibbi-Suen, Isin reaches its peak under Ishme-Dagan. Weakened by attacks from the upstart Babylonians, Isin eventually falls to its rival Larsa under Rim-Sin I. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Ishbi-Erra 1953–1921 BC Contemporary of Ibbi-Suen of Ur III Šu-ilišu 1920–1911 BC Son of Ishbi-Erra Iddin-Dagan 1910–1890 BC Son of Shu-ilishu Ishme-Dagan 1889–1871 BC Son of Iddin-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar 1870–1860 BC Contemporary of Gungunum of Larsa Ur-Ninurta 1859–1832 BC Contemporary of Abisare of Larsa Bur-Suen 1831–1811 BC Son of Ur-Ninurta Lipit-Enlil 1810–1806 BC Son of Bur-Suen Erra-Imittī or Ura-imitti 1805–1799 BC Enlil-bāni 1798–1775 BC Contemporary of Sumu-la-El of Babylon Zambīia 1774–1772 BC Contemporary of Sin-Iqisham of Larsa Iter-piša 1771–1768 BC Ur-du-kuga 1767–1764 BC Suen-magir 1763–1753 BC Damiq-ilishu 1752–1730 BC Son of Suen-magir Kings of Larsa Further information: Larsa The chronology of the Kingdom of Larsa is based mainly on the Larsa King List (Larsa Dynastic List), the Larsa Date Lists, and a number of royal inscriptions and commercial records. The Larsa King List was compiled in Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi, conqueror of Larsa. It is suspected that the list elevated the first several Amorite Isinite governors of Larsa to kingship so as to legitimize the rule of the Amorite Babylonians over Larsa. After a period of Babylonian occupation, Larsa briefly breaks free in a revolt ended by the death of the last king, Rim-Sin II. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Naplanum 1961–1940 BC Contemporary of Ibbi-Suen of Ur III Emisum 1940–1912 BC Samium 1912–1877 BC Zabaia 1877–1868 BC Son of Samium, First royal inscription Gungunum 1868–1841 BC Gained independence from Lipit-Eshtar of Isin Abisare 1841–1830 BC Sumuel 1830–1801 BC Nur-Adad 1801–1785 BC Contemporary of Sumu-la-El of Babylon Sin-Iddinam 1785–1778 BC Son of Nur-Adad Sin-Eribam 1778–1776 BC Sin-Iqisham 1776–1771 BC Contemporary of Zambiya of Isin, Son of Sin-Eribam Silli-Adad 1771–1770 BC Warad-Sin 1770–1758 BC Possible co-regency with Kudur-Mabuk his father Rim-Sin I 1758–1699 BC Contemporary of Irdanene of Uruk, Defeated by Hammurabi of Babylon, Brother of Warad-Sin Hammurabi of Babylon 1699–1686 BC Official Babylonian rule Samsu-iluna of Babylon 1686–1678 BC Official Babylonian rule Rim-Sin II 1678–1674 BC Killed in revolt against Babylon First Babylonian dynasty (Dynasty I) Main article: First Babylonian dynasty Following the fall of the Ur III Dynasty, the resultant power vacuum was contested by Isin and Larsa, with Babylon and Assyria later joining the fray. In the second half of the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon became the preeminent power, a position it largely maintained until the sack by Mursili I in 1531 BC. Note that there are no contemporary accounts of the sack of Babylon. It is inferred from much later documents. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Sumu-abum or Su-abu 1830–1817 BC Contemporary of Ilushuma of Assyria Sumu-la-El 1817–1781 BC Contemporary of Erishum I of Assyria Sabium or Sabum 1781–1767 BC Son of Sumu-la-El Apil-Sin 1767–1749 BC Son of Sabium Sin-muballit 1748–1729 BC Son of Apil-Sin Hammurabi 1728–1686 BC Contemporary of Zimri-Lim of Mari, Siwe-palar-huppak of Elam and Shamshi-Adad I Samsu-iluna 1686–1648 BC Son of Hammurabi Abi-eshuh or Abieshu 1648–1620 BC Son of Samsu-iluna Ammi-ditana 1620–1583 BC Son of Abi-eshuh Ammi-saduqa or Ammisaduqa 1582–1562 BC Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa Samsu-Ditana 1562–1531 BC Sack of Babylon 1st Sealand Dynasty (2nd Dynasty of Babylon) Main article: Sea..
  4. Title: Wikiwand: Babylon
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Babylon;
    Note: Babylon was the capital city of Babylonia, a kingdom in ancient Mesopotamia, between the 18th and 6th centuries BC. It was built along the left and right banks of the Euphrates river with steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. Babylon was originally a small Akkadian town dating from the period of the Akkadian Empire c. 2300 BC. The town became part of a small independent city-state with the rise of the First Babylonian dynasty in the 19th century BC. The Amorite king Hammurabi created a short-lived empire in the 18th century BC. He built Babylon into a major city and declared himself its king. Southern Mesopotamia became known as Babylonia and Babylon eclipsed Nippur as its holy city. The empire waned under Hammurabi's son Samsu-iluna and Babylon spent long periods under Assyrian, Kassite and Elamite domination. After being destroyed and then rebuilt by the Assyrians, Babylon became the capital of the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire from 609 to 539 BC. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the city came under the rule of the Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Roman, and Sassanid empires. It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world c. 1770 – c. 1670 BC, and again c. 612 – c. 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000. Estimates for the maximum extent of its area range from 890[3] to 900 hectares (2,200 acres). The remains of the city are in present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (53 mi) south of Baghdad, comprising a large tell of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references in cuneiform texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the Bible, descriptions in classical writing (especially by Herodotus), and second-hand descriptions (citing the work of Ctesias and Berossus)—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC. Name The spelling "Babylon" is the Latin representation of Greek "Babulṓn" (Βαβυλών), derived from the native (Babylonian) "Bābilim," meaning "gate of the god(s)." The cuneiform spelling was 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 KA2.DIG̃IR.RAKI. This would correspond to the Sumerian phrase "kan diĝirak," "gate of the god." The 𒆍 KA2 is the ideograph for "gate," 𒀭 DIG̃IR is "god," and the 𒊏, "ra" is phonetic. The final 𒆠 KI is the determiner for a place name. Archibald Sayce, writing in the 1870s, postulated that the Semitic name was a loan-translation of the original Sumerian name. However, the "gate of god" interpretation is increasingly viewed as a Semitic folk etymology to explain an unknown original non-Semitic placename. I.J. Gelb in 1955 argued that the original name was "Babil" or "Babilla," of unknown meaning and origin, as there were other similarly-named places in Sumer, and there are no other examples of Sumerian place-names being replaced with Akkadian translations. He deduced that it later transformed into Akkadian "Bāb-ili(m)." The Sumerian name "Ka-dig̃irra" was loan translation of the Semitic folk etymology, and not the original name. The re-translation of the Semitic name into Sumerian would have taken place at the time of the "Neo-Sumerian" Third Dynasty of Ur. ("Bab-Il"). In the Hebrew Bible, the name appears as "Babel" (Hebrew: בָּבֶל,‎" Bavel," Tib. בָּבֶל, "Bāḇel"; Classical Syriac: ܒܒܠ,‎ "Bāwēl," Aramaic: בבל,‎" Babel; in Arabic: بَابِل‎ Bābil), interpreted in the Book of Genesis to mean "confusion," from the verb "bilbél" (בלבל, "to confuse"). The modern English verb, "to babble" ("to speak meaningless words"), popularly is thought to derive from this name, but there is no direct connection. Ancient records in some situations use "Babylon" as a name for other cities, including cities like Borsippa within Babylon's sphere of influence, and Nineveh for a short period after the Assyrian sack of Babylon. Geography The remains of the city are in present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (53 mi) south of Baghdad, comprising a large tell of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. The site at Babylon consists of a number of mounds covering an area of about 2 by 1 kilometer (1.24 mi × 0.62 mi), oriented north to south, along the Euphrates to the west. Originally, the river roughly bisected the city, but the course of the river has since shifted so that most of the remains of the former western part of the city are now inundated. Some portions of the city wall to the west of the river also remain. Only a small portion of the ancient city (3% of the area within the inner walls; 1.5% of the area within the outer walls; 0.1% at the depth of Middle and Old Babylon) has been excavated. Known remains include: . Kasr – also called Palace or Castle, it is the location of the Neo-Babylonian ziggurat Etemenanki and lies in the center of the site. . Amran Ibn Ali – the highest of the mounds at 25 meters (82 ft) to the south. It is the site of Esagila, a temple of Marduk which also contained shrines to Ea and Nabu. . Homera – a reddish-colored mound on the west side. Most of the Hellenistic remains are here. . Babil – a mound about 22 meters (72 ft) high at the northern end of the site. Its bricks have been subject to looting since ancient times. It held a palace built by Nebuchadnezzar. Archaeologists have recovered few artifacts predating the Neo-Babylonian period. The water table in the region has risen greatly over the centuries, and artifacts from the time before the Neo-Babylonian Empire are unavailable to current standard archaeological methods. Additionally, the Neo-Babylonians conducted significant rebuilding projects in the city, which destroyed or obscured much of the earlier record. Babylon was pillaged numerous times after revolting against foreign rule, most notably by the Hittites and Elamites in the 2nd millennium, then by the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Achaemenid Empire in the 1st millennium. Much of the western half of the city is now beneath the river, and other parts of the site have been mined for commercial building materials. Only the Koldewey expedition recovered artifacts from the Old Babylonian period. These included 967 clay tablets, stored in private houses, with Sumerian literature and lexical documents. Nearby ancient settlements are Kish, Borsippa, Dilbat, and Kutha. Marad and Sippar were 60 kilometers (37 mi) in either direction along the Euphrates. Sources Historical knowledge of early Babylon must be pieced together from epigraphic remains found elsewhere, such as at Uruk, Nippur, and Haradum. Information on the Neo-Babylonian city is available from archaeological excavations and from classical sources. Babylon was described, perhaps even visited, by a number of classical historians including Ctesias, Herodotus, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Strabo, and Cleitarchus. These reports are of variable accuracy and some of the content was politically motivated, but these still provide useful information. Early references References to the city of Babylon can be found in Akkadian and Sumerian literature from the late third millennium BC. One of the earliest is a tablet describing the Akkadian king Šar-kali-šarri laying the foundations in Babylon of new temples for Annūnı̄tum and Ilaba. Babylon also appears in the administrative records of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which collected in-kind tax payments and appointed an ensi as local governor. The so-called Weidner Chronicle (also known as ABC 19) states that Sargon of Akkad (c. 23d century BC in the short chronology) had built Babylon "in front of Akkad" (ABC 19:51). A later chronicle states that Sargon "dug up the dirt of the pit of Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Akkad." (ABC 20:18–19). Van de Mieroop has suggested that those sources may refer to the much later Assyrian king Sargon II of the Neo-Assyrian Empire rather than Sargon of Akkad. Classical dating Ctesias, quoted by Diodorus Siculus and in George Syncellus's "Chronographia," claimed to have access to manuscripts from Babylonian archives that date the founding of Babylon to 2286 BC, under the reign of its first king, Belus. A similar figure is found in the writings of Berossus, who according to Pliny, stated that astronomical observations commenced at Babylon 490 years before the Greek era of Phoroneus, indicating 2243 BC. Stephanus of Byzantium wrote that Babylon was built 1002 years before the date given by Hellanicus of Lesbos for the siege of Troy (1229 BC), which would date Babylon's foundation to 2231 BC. All of these dates place Babylon's foundation in the 23rd century BC; however, cuneiform records have not been found to correspond with these classical (post-cuneiform) accounts. History By around the 19th century BC, much of southern Mesopotamia was occupied by Amorites, nomadic tribes from the northern Levant who were Northwest Semitic speakers, unlike the native Akkadians of southern Mesopotamia and Assyria, who spoke East Semitic. The Amorites at first did not practice agriculture like more advanced Mesopotamians, preferring a semi-nomadic lifestyle, herding sheep. Over time, Amorite grain merchants rose to prominence and established their own independent dynasties in several south Mesopotamian city-states, most notably Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, Lagash, and later, founding Babylon as a state. Old Babylonian period According to a Babylonian date list, Amorite rule in Babylon began (c. 19th or 18th century BC) with a chieftain named Sumu-abum, who declared independence from the neighboring city-state of Kazallu. Sumu-la-El, whose dates may be concurrent with those of Sumu-abum, is usually given as the progenitor of the First Babylonian dynasty. Both are credited with building the walls of Babylon. In any case, the records describe Sumu-la-El's military successes establishing a ..
  5. Title: Wikiwand: Kassites
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Kassites;
    Note: The Kassites (/ˈkæsaɪts/) were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1531 BC and until c. 1155 BC (short chronology). The endonym of the Kassites was probably Galzu, although they have also been referred to by the names Kaššu, Kassi, Kasi or Kashi. They gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of the city in 1595 BC (i.e. 1531 BC per the short chronology), and established a dynasty based first in Babylon and later in Dur-Kurigalzu. The Kassites were members of a small military aristocracy but were efficient rulers and not locally unpopular, and their 500-year reign laid an essential groundwork for the development of subsequent Babylonian culture. The chariot and the horse, which the Kassites worshiped, first came into use in Babylonia at this time. The Kassite language has not been classified. What is known is that their language was not related to either the Indo-European language group, nor to Semitic or other Afro-Asiatic languages, and is most likely to have been a language isolate although some linguists have proposed a link to the Hurro-Urartian languages of Asia Minor. However, the arrival of the Kassites has been connected to the contemporary migrations of Indo-European peoples. Several Kassite leaders and deities bore Indo-European names, and it is possible that they were dominated by an Indo-European elite similar to the Mitanni, who ruled over the Hurro-Urartian-speaking Hurrians of Asia Minor. History Late Bronze Age The original homeland of the Kassites is not well-known, but appears to have been located in the Zagros Mountains, in what is now the Lorestan Province of Iran. However, the Kassites were—like the Elamites, Gutians and Manneans who preceded them—linguistically unrelated to the Iranian-speaking peoples who came to dominate the region a millennium later. They first appeared in the annals of history in the 18th century BC when they attacked Babylonia in the 9th year of the reign of Samsu-iluna (reigned c. 1749–1712 BC), the son of Hammurabi. Samsu-iluna repelled them, as did Abi-Eshuh, but they subsequently gained control of Babylonia c. 1570 BC some 25 years after the fall of Babylon to the Hittites in c. 1595 BC, and went on to conquer the southern part of Mesopotamia, roughly corresponding to ancient Sumer and known as the "Dynasty of the Sealand" by c. 1520 BC. The Hittites had carried off the idol of the god Marduk, but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna. The circumstances of their rise to power are unknown, due to a lack of documentation from this so-called "Dark Age" period of widespread dislocation. No inscription or document in the Kassite language has been preserved, an absence that cannot be purely accidental, suggesting a severe regression of literacy in official circles. Babylon under Kassite rulers, who renamed the city Karanduniash, re-emerged as a political and military power in Mesopotamia. A newly built capital city Dur-Kurigalzu was named in honor of Kurigalzu I (ca. early 14th century BC). Their success was built upon the relative political stability that the Kassite monarchs achieved. They ruled Babylonia practically without interruption for almost four hundred years—the longest rule by any dynasty in Babylonian history. The transformation of southern Mesopotamia into a territorial state, rather than a network of allied or combative city states, made Babylonia an international power, although it was often overshadowed by its northern neighbor, Assyria and by Elam to the east. Kassite kings established trade and diplomacy with Assyria. Puzur-Ashur III of Assyria and Burna-Buriash I signed a treaty agreeing the border between the two states in the mid-16th century BC, Egypt, Elam, and the Hittites, and the Kassite royal house intermarried with their royal families. There were foreign merchants in Babylon and other cities, and Babylonian merchants were active from Egypt (a major source of Nubian gold) to Assyria and Anatolia. Kassite weights and seals, the packet-identifying and measuring tools of commerce, have been found in as far afield as Thebes in Greece, in southern Armenia, and even in the Uluburun shipwreck off the southern coast of today's Turkey. A further treaty between Kurigalzu I and Ashur-bel-nisheshu of Assyria was agreed in the mid-15th century BC. However, Babylonia found itself under attack and domination from Assyria for much of the next few centuries after the accession of Ashur-uballit I in 1365 BC who made Assyria (along with the Hittites and Egyptians) the major power in the Near East. Babylon was sacked by the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I (1365–1330 BC)) in the 1360s after the Kassite king in Babylon who was married to the daughter of Ashur-uballit was murdered. Ashur-uballit promptly marched into Babylonia and avenged his son-in-law, deposing the king and installing Kurigalzu II of the royal Kassite line as king there. His successor Enlil-nirari (1330–1319 BC) also attacked Babylonia and his great grandson Adad-nirari I (1307–1275 BC) annexed Babylonian territory when he became king. Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–1208 BC) not content with merely dominating Babylonia went further, conquering Babylonia, deposing Kashtiliash IV and ruling there for eight years in person from 1235 BC to 1227 BC. The Kassite kings maintained control of their realm through a network of provinces administered by governors. Almost equal with the royal cities of Babylon and Dur-Kurigalzu, the revived city of Nippur was the most important provincial center. Nippur, the formerly great city, which had been virtually abandoned c. 1730 BC, was rebuilt in the Kassite period, with temples meticulously re-built on their old foundations. In fact, under the Kassite government, the governor of Nippur, who took the Sumerian-derived title of Guennakku, ruled as a sort of secondary and lesser king. The prestige of Nippur was enough for a series of 13th-century BC Kassite kings to reassume the title "governor of Nippur" for themselves. Other important centers during the Kassite period were Larsa, Sippar and Susa. After the Kassite dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC, the system of provincial administration continued and the country remained united under the succeeding rule, the Second Dynasty of Isin. Documentation of the Kassite period depends heavily on the scattered and disarticulated tablets from Nippur, where thousands of tablets and fragments have been excavated. They include administrative and legal texts, letters, seal inscriptions, kudurrus (land grants and administrative regulations), private votive inscriptions, and even a literary text (usually identified as a fragment of a historical epic). "Kassite rulers in Babylon were also scrupulous to follow existing forms of expression, and the public and private patterns of behavior "and even went beyond that—as zealous neophytes do, or outsiders, who take up a superior civilization—by favoring an extremely conservative attitude, at least in palace circles." (Oppenheim 1964, p. 62). The Elamites conquered Babylonia in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state. The last Kassite king, Enlil-nadin-ahi, was taken to Susa and imprisoned there, where he also died. Iron Age The Kassites did briefly regain control over Babylonia with Dynasty V (1025–1004 BC); however, they were deposed once more, this time by an Aramean dynasty. Kassites survived as a distinct ethnic group in the mountains of Lorestan (Luristan) long after the Kassite state collapsed. Babylonian records describe how the Assyrian king Sennacherib on his eastern campaign of 702 BC subdued the Kassites in a battle near Hulwan, Iran. Herodotus and other ancient Greek writers sometimes referred to the region around Susa as "Cissia," a variant of the Kassite name. However, it is not clear if Kassites were actually living in that region so late. During the later Achaemenid period, the Kassites, referred to as "Kossaei," lived in the mountains to the east of Media and were one of several "predatory" mountain tribes that regularly extracted "gifts" from the Achaemenid Persians, according to a citation of Nearchus by Strabo (13.3.6). But Kassites again fought on the Persian side in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, in which the Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great, according to Diodorus Siculus (17.59) (who called them "Kossaei") and Curtius Rufus (4.12) (who called them "inhabitants of the Cossaean mountains"). According to Strabo's citation of Nearchus, Alexander later separately attacked the Kassites "in the winter," after which they stopped their tribute-seeking raids. Strabo also wrote that the "Kossaei" contributed 13,000 archers to the army of Elymais in a war against Susa and Babylon. This statement is hard to understand, as Babylon had lost importance under Seleucid rule by the time Elymais emerged around 160 BC. If "Babylon" is understood to mean the Seleucids, then this battle would have occurred sometime between the emergence of Elymais and Strabo's death around 25 AD. If "Elymais" is understood to mean Elam, then the battle probably occurred in the 6th century BC. Note that Susa was the capital of Elam and later of Elymais, so Strabo's statement implies that the Kassites intervened to support a particular group within Elam or Elymais against their own capital, which at that moment was apparently allied with or subject to Babylon or the Seleucids. The latest evidence of Kassite culture is a reference by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy, who described "Kossaei" as living in the Susa region, adjacent to the "Elymeans". This could represent one of many cases where Ptolemy relied on out-of-date sources. It is believed that the name of the Kassites is preserved in the name of the Kashgan River, in Lorestan. Kassite dynasty of Babylon (short chronology) Ruler Reigned Comments Agum II or ..
  6. Title: "Analecta orientalia: commentationes scientificae de rebus 0rientis antiqui cura Pontificii instituti biblici editae, Volumes 43-44"
    Author: Pontificium Istitutum Biblicum., 1968 - Oriental philology
    Publication: Name: https://books.google.com/books?newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&id=hz8bAQAAMAAJ&dq=Adad-shuma-usur&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Shagarakti;
  7. Title: Wikiwand: Assyria
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Assyria;
    Note: Assyria (/əˈsɪəriə/), also called the Assyrian Empire, was a Mesopotamian kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East and the Levant that existed as a state from perhaps as early as the 25th century BC (in the form of the Assur city-state) until its collapse between 612 BC and 609 BC – spanning the periods of the Early to Middle Bronze Age through to the late Iron Age. From the end of the seventh century BC (when the Neo-Assyrian state fell) to the mid-seventh century AD, it survived as a geopolitical entity, for the most part ruled by foreign powers such as the Parthian and early Sasanian Empires between the mid-second century BC and late third century AD, the final part of which period saw Mesopotamia become a major center of Syriac Christianity and the birthplace of the Church of the East. A largely Semitic-speaking realm, Assyria was centered on the Tigris in Upper Mesopotamia. The Assyrians came to rule powerful empires in several periods. Making up a substantial part of the greater Mesopotamian "cradle of civilization," which included Sumer, the Akkadian Empire, and Babylonia, Assyria reached the height of technological, scientific and cultural achievements for its time. At its peak, the Neo-Assyrian Empire of 911 to 609 BC stretched from eastern Libya and Cyprus in the East Mediterranean to Iran, and from present-day Armenia and Azerbaijan in the Transcaucasia to the Arabian Peninsula. The name "Assyria" originates with the Assyrian state's original capital, the ancient city of Aššur, which dates to c. 2600 BC – originally one of a number of Akkadian-speaking city-states in Mesopotamia. In the 25th and 24th centuries BC, Assyrian kings were pastoral leaders. From the late 24th century BC, the Assyrians became subject to Sargon of Akkad, who united all the Akkadian- and Sumerian-speaking peoples of Mesopotamia under the Akkadian Empire, which lasted from c. 2334 BC to 2154 BC. After the Assyrian Empire fell from power, the greater remaining part of Assyria formed a geopolitical region and province of other empires, although between the mid-2nd century BC and late 3rd century AD a patchwork of small independent Assyrian kingdoms arose in the form of Assur, Adiabene, Osroene, Beth Nuhadra, Beth Garmai and Hatra. The region of Assyria fell under the successive control of the Median Empire of 678 to 549 BC, the Achaemenid Empire of 550 to 330 BC, the Macedonian Empire (late 4th century BC), the Seleucid Empire of 312 to 63 BC, the Parthian Empire of 247 BC to 224 AD, the Roman Empire (from 116 to 118 AD) and the Sasanian Empire of 224 to 651 AD. The Arab Islamic conquest of the area in the mid-seventh century finally dissolved Assyria (Assuristan) as a single entity, after which the remnants of the Assyrian people (by now Christians) gradually became an ethnic, linguistic, cultural and religious minority in the Assyrian homeland, surviving there to this day as an indigenous people of the region. Etymology Assyria was also sometimes known as Subartu and "Azuhinum" prior to the rise of the city-state of Ashur, after which it was Aššūrāyu, and after its fall, from 605 BC through to the late seventh century AD variously as Achaemenid Assyria, and also referenced as Atouria, Ator, Athor, and sometimes as "Syria," which etymologically derives from Assyria according to Strabo, "Syria"(Greek), "Assyria" (Latin) and Asōristān (Middle Persian). "Assyria" also can refer to the geographic region or heartland where Assyria, its empires and the Assyrian people were (and still are) centered. The indigenous modern Eastern Aramaic-speaking Assyrian Christian ethnic minority in northern Iraq, north east Syria, southeast Turkey and northwest Iran are the descendants of the ancient Assyrians (see Assyrian continuity). As Babylonia is called after the city of Babylon, Assyria means "land of Asshur." Etymologically, "Assyria" is connected to the name of "Syria,"with both being ultimately derived from the Akkadian "Aššur." Theodor Nöldeke in 1881 was the first to give philological support to the assumption that Syria and Assyria have the same etymology, a suggestion going back to John Selden (1617). A 21st-century discovery of the Çineköy inscription also confirmed that Syria, being a Greek corruption of the name Assyria, is ultimately derived from the Assyrian term "Aššūrāyu." Pre-history In prehistoric times, the region that was to become known as Assyria (and Subartu) was home to a Neanderthal culture such as has been found at the Shanidar Cave. The earliest Neolithic sites in what will be Assyria were the Jarmo culture c. 7100 BC, the Halaf culture c. 6100 BC, and the Hassuna culture c. 6000 BC. The Akkadian-speaking people (the earliest historically-attested Semitic-speaking people) who would eventually found Assyria appear to have entered Mesopotamia at some point during the latter 4th millennium BC (c. 3500–3000 BC), eventually intermingling with the earlier Sumerian-speaking population, who came from northern Mesopotamia, with Akkadian names appearing in written record from as early as the 29th century BC. During the 3rd millennium BC, a very intimate cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akkadians throughout Mesopotamia, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian (a language isolate) on Akkadian, and vice versa, is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium BC as a "sprachbund." Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere after the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate), although Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD, as did use of the Akkadian cuneiform. The cities of Assur, Nineveh, Gasur and Arbela together with a number of other towns and cities, existed since at least before the middle of the 3rd millennium BC (c. 2600 BC), although they appear to have been Sumerian-ruled administrative centers at this time, rather than independent states. Greco-Roman classical writers such as Julius Africanus, Marcus Velleius Paterculus and Diodorus Siculus dated the founding of Assyria to various dates between 2284 BC and 2057 BC, listing the earliest king as Belus or Ninus. According to the Biblical generations of Noah, which appears to have been largely compiled between the 7th and 5th centuries BC, the city of Aššur was allegedly founded by a biblical Ashur the son of Shem, who was deified by later generations as the city's patron god. However, the much older attested Assyrian tradition itself lists the first king of Assyria as the 25th century BC Tudiya, and an early urbanized Assyrian king named Ushpia (c. 2050 BC) as having dedicated the first temple to the god Ashur in the city in the mid-21st century BC. It is highly likely that the city was named in honor of its patron Assyrian god with the same name. History Further information: Timeline of the Assyrian Empire Early Period, 2600–2025 BC Main article: Early Period (Assyria) The city of Aššur, together with a number of other Assyrian cities, seem to have been established by 2600 BC. However it is likely that they were initially Sumerian-dominated administrative centers. In the late 26th century BC, Eannatum of Lagash, then the dominant Sumerian ruler in Mesopotamia, mentions "smiting Subartu" (Subartu being the Sumerian name for Assyria). Similarly, in c. the early 25th century BC, Lugal-Anne-Mundu the king of the Sumerian state of Adab lists Subartu as paying tribute to him. Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is known. In the Assyrian King List, the earliest king recorded was Tudiya. According to Georges Roux he would have lived in the mid-25th century BC, i.e., c. 2450 BC. In archaeological reports from Ebla, it appeared that Tudiya's activities were confirmed with the discovery of a tablet where he concluded a treaty for the operation of a "karum" (trading colony) in Eblaite territory, with "king" Ibrium of Ebla (who now is known to have been the vizier of Ebla for king Ishar-Damu). Tudiya was succeeded on the list by Adamu, the first known reference to the Semitic name "Adam," and then a further thirteen rulers (Yangi, Suhlamu, Harharu, Mandaru, Imsu, Harsu, Didanu, Hanu, Zuabu, Nuabu, Abazu, Belus and Azarah). Nothing concrete is yet known about these names, although it has been noted that a much later Babylonian tablet listing the ancestral lineage of Hammurabi, the Amorite king of Babylon, seems to have copied the same names from Tudiya through Nuabu, though in a heavily corrupted form. The earliest kings, such as Tudiya, who are recorded as "kings who lived in tents," were independent semi-nomadic pastoralist rulers. These kings at some point became fully urbanised and founded the city state of Aššur in the mid 21st-century BC. Akkadian Empire and Neo-Sumerian Empires, 2334–2050 BC Further information: Akkadian Empire and Neo-Sumerian Empire During the Akkadian Empire (2334–2154 BC), the Assyrians, like all the Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamians (and also the Sumerians), became subject to the dynasty of the city-state of Akkad, centered in central Mesopotamia. The Akkadian Empire founded by Sargon the Great claimed to encompass the surrounding "four quarters." The region of Assyria, north of the seat of the empire in central Mesopotamia, had also been known as Subartu by the Sumerians, and the name Azuhinum in Akkadian records also seems to refer to Assyria proper. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. Assyrian rulers were subject to Sargon and his successors, and the city of Ashur became a regional administrative center of the Empire, implicated by the Nuzi tablets. During this period, the Akka..
  8. Title: Wikiwand: List of kings of Babylon
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_kings_of_Babylon;
    Note: The King of Babylon (Akkadian: "šar Bābili"), in some periods called the Governor or Viceroy of Babylon (Akkadian: "šakkanakki Bābili"), the King of Babylonia (Akkadian: "šar māt Bābil") or the King of Karduniash (Akkadian: "šar Karduniaš"), was the ruler of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Babylon, and its kingdom (Babylonia) which existed as an independent kingdom from approximately the 19th century BC to the 6th century BC. Although Babylon tended to control most of southern Mesopotamia during its time as independent kingdom, it experienced two major periods of ascendancy, when Babylon dominated all of Mesopotamia and lands beyond; the Old Babylonian Empire (or "First dynasty," c. 1894–1595 BC) and the Neo-Babylonian Empire (or "Eleventh dynasty," 626–539 BC). Of the eleven ancient dynasties that ruled Babylon from its foundation as an independent realm c. 1894 BC to the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, few were of native Babylonian ancestry. Several dynasties were of Kassite origin and there were also Assyrian, Elamite, Chaldean and Amorite rulers. Despite this, Babylon would often fiercely attempt to assert its independence and it repeatedly clashed against the other major Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian kingdom of its time, Assyria. The period when the Assyrians ruled as kings of Babylon (the Neo-Assyrian Empire or "Tenth dynasty," 729–626 BC) saw repeated rebellions in Babylon, eventually culminating in a successful return to independence. After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the title of King of Babylon continued to be used by monarchs of the successive empires which ruled Mesopotamia and the citizens of Babylon itself continued to apply it to whoever happened to rule their homeland at the time. Revolts aimed at independence continued unsuccessfully for centuries, with Babylon revolting as late as 336 BC, more than two centuries after it had native monarchs. The last recorded rulers to be accorded the title by the Babylonians were Parthian kings in the 1st century BC, after which the Akkadian language and Babylonian culture diminished and eventually disappeared. Babylonian King List The Babylonian King List is a very specific ancient list of supposed Babylonian kings recorded in several ancient locations, and related to its predecessor, the Sumerian King List. As in the latter, contemporaneous dynasties are misleadingly listed as successive without comment. There are three versions, which are known as "King List A" (containing all the kings from the First Dynasty of Babylon to the Neo-Assyrian king Kandalanu), "King List B" (containing only the two first dynasties), and "King List C" (containing the first seven kings of the Second Dynasty of Isin). A fourth version was written in Greek by Berossus. The "Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Age" is a continuation that mentions all the Seleucid kings from Alexander the Great to Demetrius II Nicator. List of kings First dynasty (1894–1595 BC) Main article: First Babylonian dynasty Also called the "Amorite dynasty." The dates used follow the "middle chronology" (reign of Hammurabi 1792–1750 BC), the chronology most commonly encountered in literature, including many current textbooks on the archaeology and history of the ancient Near East. No. Image King Reign Succession Notes Ref 1 Sumu-abum Šumu-abum c. 1894–1881 BC (13 years) Liberated Babylon from the control of Kazallu The first king of Babylon, Sumu-abum freed a small region centered on Babylon, previously under the control of the city state Kazallu. He did not title himself as King of Babylon (and neither did his first three successors), suggesting that the city wasn't very important at the time. 2 Sumu-la-El Šumu-la-El c. 1881–1845 BC (36 years) Unknown Sumu-la-El's year names reference the construction of a great city wall in Babylon. 3 Sabium Sabūm c. 1845–1831 BC (14 years) Unknown Sabium's year names reference wars with Larsa and building projects in various cities in the region surrounding Babylon. 4 Apil-Sin Apil-Sîn c. 1831–1813 BC (18 years) Unknown Apil-Sin's year names reference several building projects in Babylon, including temples and a new city wall. 5 Sin-Muballit Sîn-Muballit c. 1813–1792 BC (21 years) Son of Apil-Sin The first ruler to actually title himself King of Babylon, began expanding the territory of his previously minor empire. 6 Hammurabi Ḫammu-rāpi c. 1792–1750 BC (42 years) Son of Sin-Muballit Hammurabi massively expanded Babylon's territory, founding the Old Babylonian Empire and bringing most of Mesopotamia under his control. He is also famous for the Code of Hammurabi, one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world. 7 Samsu-iluna Šamšu-iluna c. 1750–1712 BC (38 years) Son of Hammurabi Samsu-iluna campaigned victoriously against several of Babylon's rebellious vassals in the wake of Hammurabi's death and though he was unable to keep the entirety of his father's empire together, he successfully retained control of the empire's heartlands in southern Mesopotamia. 8 Abi-Eshuh Abī-Ešuḫ c. 1712–1684 BC (28 years) Son of Samsu-iluna Babylonia experienced severe Elamite raids during Abu-Eshuh's reign. 9 Ammi-Ditana Ammi-ditāna c. 1684–1647 BC (47 years) Son of Abi-Eshuh Largely peaceful reign; Ammi-Ditana was primarily engaged in building projects such as enriching and enlarging the temples. 10 Ammi-Saduqa Ammi-Saduqa c. 1647–1626 BC (21 years) Unknown Largely peaceful reign; Ammi-Saduqa was primarily engaged in building projects such as enriching and enlarging the temples. 11 Samsu-Ditana Šamšu-ditāna c. 1626–1595 BC (31 years) Great-great-grandson of Hammurabi The Old Babylonian Empire came to a sudden end during Samsu-Ditana's reign as the Hittites, for reasons unknown, sacked and destroyed the city. Babylon was sacked and destroyed by the Hittites in c. 1595 BC. The city and its kingdom was not firmly re-established until c. 1530 BC, by the Kassite king Agum II. Second dynasty (1732–1460 BC) Main article: Sealand Dynasty Also called the "Sealand dynasty." These rulers might only have ruled Babylonia itself for the briefest of periods, being based in formerly Sumerian regions south of it. Nevertheless, it is often traditionally numbered the Second Dynasty of Babylon, and so it is listed here. Little is known of these rulers. They were counted as kings of Babylon in later king lists, succeeding the Amorite dynasty despite overlapping reigns. No. Image King Reign Succession Notes Ref 12 Ilum-ma-ili Ilum-ma-ilī c. 1732 BC (60 years) Unknown 13 Itti-ili-nibi Itti-ili-nībī (56 years) Unknown 14 Damqi-ilishu Damqi-ilišu (36 years) Unknown 15 Ishkibal Iškibal (15 years) Unknown 16 Shushushi Šušši (24 years) Brother of Ishkibal 17 Gulkishar Gulkišar (55 years) Unknown 18 mDIŠ+U-EN mDIŠ-U-EN Unknown Unknown 19 Peshgaldaramesh Pešgaldarameš (50 years) Son of Gulkishar 20 Ayadaragalama Ayadaragalama (28 years) Son of Peshgaldaramesh 21 Akurduana Akurduana (26 years) Unknown 22 Melamkurkurra Melamkurkurra (7 years) Unknown 23 Ea-gamil Ea-gamil c. 1460 BC (9 years) Unknown Third dynasty (1530–1155 BC) Main article: Kassites Also called the "Kassite dynasty." No. Image King Reign Succession Notes Ref 32 Agum II Kakrime Agum-Kakrime c. 1530 BC Re-established Babylon Established the long-lived Kassite dynasty as the rulers of Babylon. Portrays himself as the legitimate ruler and caring “shepherd” of both the Kassites and the Akkadians. 33 Burnaburiash I Burna-Buriaš c. 1515 BC Son of Agum II It is possible that Burnaburiash I, and not Agum II, was the actual first Kassite ruler to hold Babylon. Engaged in diplomacy with the Assyrian king Puzur-Ashur III. 34 Kashtiliash III Kaštiliašu c. 1500 BC Son of Burnaburiash I Only known from the Assyrian Synchronistic King List. 35 Ulamburiash Ulam-Buriaš c. 1480 BC Son of Burnaburiash I Conquered the Sealand Dynasty, establishing the Kassites as rulers of all of southern Mesopotamia. 36 Agum III Agum c. 1470 BC Son of Kashtiliash III The only Babylonian reference to Agum III is from an expedition he led against "the Sealand." 37 Karaindash Karaindaš c. 1410 BC Unknown One of the Kassite dynasty's more prominent rulers, Karaindash, Karaindash refurbished a temple at Uruk and engaged in diplomacy with Assyria and Egypt. 38 Kadashman-harbe I Kadašman-Ḫarbe c. 1400 BC Unknown Campaigned against the against the Sutû and possibly against Elam. 39 Kurigalzu I Kuri-Galzu c. 1375 BC Son of Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I was responsible for one of the most extensive and widespread building programs for which evidence has survived in Babylonia. 40 Kadashman-Enlil I Kadašman-Enlil c. 1374–1360 BC (14 years) Son of Kurigalzu I Contemporary of Amenhotep III in Egypt, who he corresponded with. 41 Burnaburiash II Burna-Buriaš c. 1359–1333 BC (26 years) Son of Kadashman-Enlil I Contemporary of Akhenaten in Egypt, who he famously corresponded with in the Amarna letters. 42 Kara-hardash Kara-ḫardaš c. 1333 BC Son of Burnaburiash Next to nothing is known of Kara-hardash's brief reign. 43 Nazi-Bugash Nazi-Bugaš or Šuzigaš c. 1333 BC Overthrew Kara-hardash, unrelated to previous kings Next to nothing is known of Nazi-Bugash's brief reign. 44 Kurigalzu II the Younger Kuri-Galzu c. 1332–1308 BC (24 years) Son of Burnaburiash II, appointed king by the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I Because he shares his name with a predecessor who reigned just forty years prior, it is difficult to distinguish documents from their reigns since the Babylonians themselves did not use regnal numbers. 45 Nazi-Maruttash Nazi-Maruttaš c. 1307–1282 BC (25 years) Son of Kurigalzu II Warred against the Assyrians and the Elamites. 46 Kadashman-Turgu Kadašman-Turgu c. 1281–1264 BC (17 years) Son of Nazi-Maruttash Contemporary of the Hittite king Ḫattušili III, with whom he concluded a formal treaty of friendship and mutual assist The contemporary name of this ..
  9. Title: Wikiwand: Surya
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Surya;
    Note: Surya (/ˈsuːrjə/; Sanskrit: सूर्य, IAST: "Sūrya") is a Sanskrit word that means the Sun. Synonyms of Surya in ancient Indian literature include Aaditya, Arka, Bhanu, Savitr, Pushan, Ravi, Martanda, Mitra, Bhaskara and Vivasvan. Surya also connotes the solar deity in Hinduism, particularly in the Saura tradition found in states such as Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and Odisha. Surya is one of the five deities considered as equivalent aspects and means to realizing Brahman in the Smarta Tradition. Surya's iconography is often depicted riding a chariot harnessed by horses, often seven in number which represent the seven colors of visible light, and seven days in a week. In medieval Hinduism, Surya is also an epithet for the major Hindu gods Shiva, Brahma and Vishnu. In some ancient texts and arts, Surya is presented syncretically with Indra, Ganesha or others. Surya as a deity is also found in the arts and literature of Buddhism and Jainism. Surya is depicted with a Chakra which is also interpreted as Dharmachakra. Surya is one of the nine heavenly houses (Navagraha) in the zodiac system of Hindu astrology. Surya or Ravi is the basis of Ravivara, or Sunday, in the Hindu calendar. Major festivals and pilgrimages in reverence of Surya include Makar Sankranti, Pongal, Ratha Sapthami, Chath puja and Kumbh Mela. Having survived as a primary deity in Hinduism arguably better and longer than any other of the original Vedic deities apart from Vishnu, the worship of Surya declined greatly around the 13th century, perhaps as a result of the Muslim conquest of north India. New Surya temples virtually ceased to be built, and some were later converted to a different dedication, generally Shiva. A number of important Surya temples remain, but many are no longer in worship. In various respects, Surya has tended to be merged into Shiva, or seen as subsidiary to him. Texts and history Vedic The oldest surviving Vedic hymns, such as the hymn 1.115 of the Rigveda, mention "Sūrya" with particular reverence for the "rising sun” and its symbolism as dispeller of darkness, one who empowers knowledge, the good and all life. However, the usage is context specific. In some hymns, the word Surya simply means sun as an inanimate object, a stone or a gem in the sky (Rigvedic hymns 5.47, 6.51 and 7.63); while in others it refers to a personified deity. The Vedas assert Sun (Surya) to be the creator of the material universe (Prakriti). In the layers of Vedic texts, Surya is one of the several trinities along with Agni and either Vayu or Indra, which are presented as an equivalent icon and aspect of the Hindu metaphysical concept called the Brahman. In the Brahmanas layer of Vedic literature, Surya appears with Agni (fire god) in the same hymns. Surya is revered for the day, while Agni for its role during the night. The idea evolves, states Kapila Vatsyayan, where Surya is stated to be Agni as the first principle and the seed of the universe. It is in the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas, and the Upanishads that Surya is explicitly linked to the power of sight, to visual perception and knowledge. He is then interiorized to be the eye as ancient Hindu sages suggested abandonment of external rituals to gods in favor of internal reflections and meditation of gods within, in one's journey to realize the Atman (soul, self) within, in texts such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chandogya Upanishad, Kaushitaki Upanishad and others. Epics The Mahabharata epic opens its chapter on Surya that reverentially calls him as the "eye of the universe, soul of all existence, origin of all life, goal of the Samkhyas and Yogis, and symbolism for freedom and spiritual emancipation. In the Mahabharata, Karna is the son of Surya and unmarried princess Kunti. The epic describes Kunti's trauma as an unmarried mother, then abandonment of Karna, followed by her lifelong grief. Baby Karna is found and adopted by a charioteer but he grows up to become a great warrior and one of the central characters in the great battle of Kurukshetra where he fights his half brothers. Buddhist Surya is celebrated as a deity in Buddhist artwork, such as the ancient works attributed to Ashoka. He appears in a relief at the Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya, riding in a chariot pulled by four horses, with Usha and Prattyusha on his sides. Such artwork suggests that the Surya as symbolism for the victory of good over evil is a concept adopted in Buddhism from an earlier Indic tradition. Greek and Persian influences Further information: Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and Kushan Empire Sun is a common deity in ancient and medieval cultures found in South America, Europe, Africa and Asia. The features and mythologies of Surya share resemblances with Hvare-khshaeta of pre-Islam Persia, and the Helios-Sol deity in the Greek-Roman culture. Surya is a Vedic deity, states Elgood, but its deity status was strengthened from the contacts between ancient Persia and India during the Kushan era, as well as after the 8th-century when sun-worshipping Parsees moved to India. Some Greek features were incorporated into Surya iconography in post-Kushan era, around mid 1st millennium, according to Elgood. Iconography The iconography of Surya in Hinduism varies with its texts. He is typically shown as a resplendent standing person holding lotus flower in both his hands, riding a chariot pulled by one or more horses typically seven. The seven horses are named after the seven meters of Sanskrit prosody: Gayatri, Brihati, Ushnih, Jagati, Trishtubha, Anushtubha and Pankti. The Brihat Samhita, a Hindu text that describes architecture, iconography and design guidelines, states that Surya should be shown with two hands and wearing a crown. In contrast, the Vishnudharmottara, another Hindu text on architecture, states Surya iconography should show him with four hands, with flowers in two hands, a staff in third, and in fourth he should be shown to be holding writing equipment (Kundi palm leaf and pen symbolizing knowledge). His chariot driver in both books is stated to be Aruṇa who is seated. Two females typically flank him, who represent the dawn goddesses named Usha and Pratyusha. The goddesses are shown to be shooting arrows, a symbolism for their initiative to challenge darkness. The iconography of Surya has also varied over time. In some ancient arts, particularly from the early centuries of the common era, his iconography is similar to those found in Persia and Greece suggesting likely adoption of Greek, Iranian and Scythian influences. After the Greek and Kushan influences arrived in ancient India, some Surya icons of the period that followed show him wearing a cloak and high boots. In some Buddhist artwork, his chariot is shown as being pulled by four horses. The doors of Buddhist monasteries of Nepal show him, along with the "Chandra" (moon god), symbolically with Surya depicted as a red circle with rays. Aniconic symbols of Surya include the Swastika and the ring-stone. Arka, Mitra and other synonyms Surya in Indian literature is referred to by various names, which typically represent different aspects or phenomenological characteristics of the Sun. Thus, Savitr refers to one that rises and sets, Aditya means one with splendor, Mitra refers to Sun as "the great luminous friend of all mankind," while Pushan refers to Sun as illuminator that helped the Devas win over Asuras who use darkness. Arka, Mitra, Aditya, Tapan, Ravi and Surya have different characteristics in early mythologies, but by the time of the epics they are synonymous. The term "Arka" is found more commonly in temple names of north India and in the eastern parts of India. The 11th century Konark Temple in Odisha is named after a composite word "Kona and Arka," or "Arka in the corner." Other Surya temples named after Arka include Uttararka and Lolarka in Uttar Pradesh, and Balarka in Rajasthan. Another 10th-century sun temple ruin is in Bahraich, Uttar Pradesh named Balarka Surya Mandir, which was destroyed in the 14th century during the Turkish invasions. Astronomy Surya as an important heavenly body appears in various Indian astronomical texts in Sanskrit, such as the 5th century "Aryabhatiya" by Aryabhata, the 6th century "Romaka" by Latadeva and "Panca Siddhantika" by Varahamihira, the 7th century "Khandakhadyaka" by Brahmagupta and the 8th century "Sisyadhivrddida" by Lalla. These texts present Surya and various planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion. Other texts such as "Surya Siddhanta" dated to have been complete sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various planets with deity mythologies. The manuscripts of these texts exist in slightly different versions, present Surya- and planets-based calculation and its relative motion to earth. These vary in their data, suggesting that the text were open and revised over their lives. For example, the 1st millennium CE Hindu scholars had estimated the sidereal length of a year as follows, from their astronomical studies, with slightly different results: Sanskrit texts: How many days in a year? Hindu text Estimated length of the sidereal year Surya Siddhanta 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 36.56 seconds Paulica Siddhanta 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 36 seconds Paracara Siddhanta 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 31.50 seconds Arya Siddhanta 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 30.84 seconds Laghu Arya Siddhanta 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 30 seconds Siddhanta Shiromani 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 9 seconds The oldest of these is likely to be the "Surya Siddhanta," while the most accurate is the "Siddhanta Shiromani." Zodiac and astrology Surya's synonym Ravi is the root of the word 'Ravivara' or Sunday in the Hindu calendar. In both Indian and Greek-Roman nomenclature for days of the week, the Sunday is dedicated to the Sun. Surya is part of the Navagraha in Hindu zodia..
  10. Title: Wikiwand: Kashtiliash IV
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Kashtiliash_IV;
    Note: Kaštiliašu IV was the twenty-eighth Kassite king of Babylon and the kingdom contemporarily known as Kar-Duniaš, c. 1232–1225 BC (short chronology). He succeeded Šagarakti-Šuriaš, who could have been his father, ruled for eight years, and went on to wage war against Assyria resulting in the catastrophic invasion of his homeland and his abject defeat. He may have ruled from the Palace of the Stag and the Palace of the Mountain Sheep, in the city of Dur-Kurigalzu, as these are referenced in a jeweler's archive from this period. Despite his short reign there are at least 177 economic texts dated to him, on subjects as diverse as various items for a chariot, issue of flour, dates, oil and salt for offerings, receipt of butter and oil at the expense of the šandabakku (the governor of Nippur), i.e. his shopping receipt, and baskets received by Rimutum from Hunnubi. War with Assyria According to his eponymous epic, Tukulti-Ninurta I, king of Assyria, was provoked into war by Kaštiliašu's dastardly preemptive attack on his territory, thereby breaching an earlier treaty between their ancestors Adad-nīrāri I and Kadašman-Turgu. But trouble may have been brewing for some time. Tudḫaliya, king of the Hittites, himself reeling from defeat by the Assyrians at the Battle of Nihriya, refers to the Babylonian king as his equal, in his treaty with his vassal, Šaušgamuwa of Amurru, hinting at the possible existence of an alliance or at least a tacit understanding between them. It reads: "The kings who are equal to me (are) the king of Egypt, the king of Karanduniya (Babylon), the king of Assyria . And if the king of Karanduniya is My Majesty's friend, he shall also be your friend; but if he is My Majesty's enemy, he shall also be your enemy. Since the king of Assyria is My Majesty's enemy he shall also be your enemy. Your merchant shall not enter into Assyria and you shall not allow his merchant into your land. He shall not pass through your land. But if he enters into your land, you should seize him and send him off to My Majesty." — "Treaty between Tudḫaliya and Šaušgamuwa," Tablet A, column IV, lines 1-18 edited Also, Kaštiliašu had granted land and presumably asylum to a Hurrian, a fugitive from Assyria's vassal Ḫanigalbat, commemorated on the Tablet of Akaptaḫa. He also reconfirmed a large gift of land on a kudurru that had been provided to Uzub-Šiḫu or -Šipak by the Kassite king, Kurigalzu II (c. 1332-1308 BC) in grateful recognition of his service in an earlier war against Assyria. Tukulti-Ninurta petitioned the god Šamaš before beginning his counter offensive. Kaštiliašu was captured, single-handed by Tukulti-Ninurta according to his account, who "trod with my feet upon his lordly neck as though it were a footstool" and deported him ignominiously in chains to Assyria. The victorious Assyrian demolished the walls of Babylon, massacred many of the inhabitants, pillaged and plundered his way across the city to the Esagila temple, where he made off with the statue of Marduk. He then proclaimed himself "king of Karduniash, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of Sippar and Babylon, king of Tilmun and Meluhha." Middle Assyrian texts recovered at modern Tell Sheikh Hamad, ancient Dūr-Katlimmu, which was the regional capital of the vassal Ḫanigalbat, include a letter from Tukulti-Ninurta to his grand vizier, Aššur-iddin advising him of the approach of Šulman-mušabši escorting a Babylonian king, who may have been Kaštiliašu, his wife, and his retinue which incorporated a large number of women, on his way to exile after his defeat. The journey to Dūr-Katlimmu seems to have traveled via Jezireh. The conflict, and its outcome, is recorded in the Tukulti-Ninurta Epic, a poetic "victory song," which has been recovered in several lengthy fragments, somewhat reminiscent of the earlier account of Adad-nīrāri's victory over Nazi-Maruttaš. It would lend its form to later Assyrian epics such as that of Shalmaneser III, concerning his campaign in Ararat. Written strictly from the Assyrian point of view, it provides a strongly biased narrative. Tukulti-Ninurta is portrayed as an innocent victim of the invidious Kaštiliašu, who is contrasted as "the transgressor of an oath," and who has so vexed the gods that they have abandoned their sanctuaries. More succinct accounts of these events are also inscribed on five large limestone tablets which were imbedded in Tukulti-Ninurta's construction projects as foundation stones, for example the "Annals of Tukulti-Ninurta," carved on a slab which was buried in or under the wall of his purpose-built capital, Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. Relations with Elam There is no extant evidence of conflict between Elam and Babylon during his reign. The ruling families had been joined through intermarriage in the past, but the countries had resorted to war to settle their differences under the reigns of Kurigalzu I and possibly Nazi-Maruttaš. However, the sequence of kings of Elam during this period is very confused, with several names suspiciously appearing over again some in shuffled sequences, such as Napirisha-Untash and Untash-Napirisha, making it hard to make sense of the chronology. After Kaštiliašu's overthrow, however, Kidin-Hutran III, the king of Elam, certainly led two successive incursions into Babylonia, which have been explained as either indicative of his loyalty to the fallen Kassite dynasty or alternatively raiding with impunity to exploit the weakness of the over-extended Assyrians. Babylon under Assyrian Governorship The "Chronicle P" records that Tukulti-Ninurta ruled through his appointed governors for seven years, where the term šaknūtīšu could include appointees or prefects. Alternative reconstructions of these events have been proposed whereby Tukulti Ninurta ruled for seven years and then three successive Kassite kings took power before the original dynasty was reinstated or that his own rule followed these kings. It has been suggested that the Šulgi Prophecy, a prophecy dated to after the events, might refer to the events during one of these reigns. Enlil-nādin-šumi may be the subject of Column V of the Šulgi prophetic speech. It is preserved in heavily damaged late-period tablets, in which Šulgi (2112–2004 BC), the second and most famous king of the third dynasty of Ur, and founder of Nippur, summarizes his achievements. He predicts that Babylon will submit to Assyria, Nippur will be "cast down," Enlil will remove the king, another king will make a messianic appearance, restore the shrines and Nippur will rise from its ashes. With the collapse of Tukulti-Ninurta's regime in Babylonia, some years before his assassination, the Kassite rabûti (important men, noblemen, officers?) rebelled and installed Kaštiliašu's son, Adad-šuma-ušur, on the throne. In literature Kashtiliash is a significant character in S. M. Stirling's "Against the Tide of Years and On the Oceans of Eternity," the second and final novels of his Nantucket series. Inscriptions 1. ^ "Kinglist A," BM 33332, column 2, lines 7-10. 2. ^ Tablets BM 17678, 17712, 17687, 17740. 3. ^ Kudurru of Kaštiliašu, Sb 30 in the Musée du Louvre. 4. ^ "Chronicle P" (ABC 22), BM 92701, column 4, lines 7 and 8, 14-16, 17-20.
  11. Title: Wikiwand: Suppiluliuma II
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Suppiluliuma_II;
    Note: Suppiluliuma II, the son of Tudhaliya IV, was the last known king of the New Kingdom of the Hittite Empire, ruling c. 1207–1178 BC (short chronology), contemporary with Tukulti-Ninurta I of the Middle Assyrian Empire. His life and reign In 1210 BC, a fleet under his command defeated one manned by the Cypriots, the first recorded naval battle in history. According to some historians (Claude Schaeffer, Horst Nowacki, Wolfgang Lefèvre), this and following two victories against Cypriots were probably won by using Ugaritic ships. He is known from two inscriptions in Hieroglyphic Luwian. They record wars against former vassal Tarhuntassa, and against Alasiya in Cyprus. One inscription is found at the base of Nisantepe in the Upper City of Hattusa; the other is on the northern corner of the East Pond (Pond 1), in what is known as Chamber 2. This served as a water reservoir for Hattusa. The chamber 2 reliefs are historically important since it records major political instability which plagued Hatti during Suppiluliuma's reign. It states that this ruler sacked the city of Tarhutassa which was a Hittite city and had briefly served as the Empire's political capital under the reign of Muwatalli II. The Sea Peoples already had begun their push down the Mediterranean coastline, starting from the Aegean, and continuing all the way to Canaan, founding the state of Philistia—taking Cilicia and Cyprus away from the Hittites en route and cutting off their coveted trade routes. Based on records in Ugarit, the threat originated in the west, and the Hittite king asked for assistance from Ugarit. "The enemy [advances(?)] against us and there is no number [...]. Our number is pure(?) [. . .] Whatever is available, look for it and send it to me." Suppiluliuma II was probably the ruler who abandoned the capital city of Hattusa, inducing the end of the Hittite empire. Some sources indicate Suppiluliuma II's end is unknown or he was simply "vanished," while some claim he was killed during the sack of Hattusa in 1190 BC. After Suppiluliuma's kingdom collapsed, the Kaskians possibly took over control of Hatti. Hattusa itself was destroyed by fire, its site only re-occupied by a Phrygian fortress some 500 years later. Kuzi-Teshub, a ruler of Carchemish, would later assume the title of "Great King" since he was a direct descendant of Suppiluliuma I.
  12. Title: Wikiwand: Shagarakti-Shuriash
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Shagarakti-Shuriash;
    Note: Šagarakti-Šuriaš, written phonetically "ša-ga-ra-ak-ti-šur-ia-aš" or "ša-garak-ti-šu-ri-ia-aš" in cuneiform, or in a variety of other forms, "Šuriaš" (a Kassite sun god corresponding to Babylonian Šamaš, and possibly to Vedic Surya) "gives me life," (1245–1233 BC short chronology) was the twenty seventh king of the Third or Kassite dynasty of Babylon. The earliest extant economic text is dated to the 5th day of Nisan in his accession year, corresponding to his predecessor’s year 9, suggesting the succession occurred very early in the year as this month was the first in the Babylonian calendar. He ruled for thirteen years and was succeeded by his son, Kaštiliašu IV. Biography The "Babylonian King List A" names Kudur-Enlil as his father but there are no confirmatory contemporary inscriptions and the reigns are too short around this period to allow for the genealogy alleged by this king list. He is featured in a letter written in later times between the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I and the Hittite king, possibly Suppiluliuma II. Unfortunately the text is not well preserved, but the phrase “non-son of Kudur-Enlil” is apparently used to describe him, in a passage discussing the genealogy of the Kassite monarchy. Economic turbulence More than three hundred economic texts have been found in several caches from Ur, Dur-Kurigalzu, and overwhelmingly Nippur dated to Šagarakti-Šuriaš’ reign. In addition, there are 127 tablets recently published probably recovered from Dūr-Enlilē.[3] They are characterized by the extraordinary variety of spellings used to name this king, who bears a defiantly Kassite title in contrast with his predecessor. Brinkman identifies eighty four[1] permutations, but disputes the suggestion by others that Ātanaḫ-Šamaš was a Babylonianized equivalent adopted to overcome the linguistic problems of the natives.[4] The texts record events such as the hire of slaves, payments in butter to temple servants, and even an agreement to assume a debt for which a priest had been imprisoned.[5] Amīl-Marduk was the Šandabakku or governor of Nippur during his reign, a position he had filled since the earlier reign of Kudur-Enlil. It has been suggested that the preponderance of commercial texts detailing debts, loans and slave transactions indicate that Babylonia faced hard economic times during his reign, where people sold themselves into slavery to repay their creditors. One of which seems to indicate his involvement in the incarceration of an individual while another is a declaration of "zakût nippurēti," "freeing of the women of Nippur" as part of a general amnesty. Ini-Tešub, the king of Kargamiš, wrote a letter to him complaining about the activities of the Ahlamu and their effect on communications and presumably trade. The Sippar-Annunītu Eulmaš of Ištar-Annunītu Šagarakti-Šuriaš built the shrine, or Eulmaš, of the warrior goddess Ištar-Annunītu, in the city of Sippar-Annunītu. Nabonidus (556-539 BC), the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, recorded on one of his four foundation cylinders, pictured, that "I excavated, surveyed, and inspected the old foundations of Eulmaš, (Anunitu’s) temple which is in Sippar-Anunitu, which for eight hundred years, since the time of Šagarakti-Šuriaš, king of Babylon, son of Kudur-Enlil, and on the foundation deposit of Šagarakti-Šuriaš, son of Kudur Enlil, I cleared its foundations and laid its brickwork." — Inscription of Nabonidus, cylinder BM 91124, in the British Museum. They actually were separated by slightly less than six hundred and eighty years. This is the only other inscription describing Šagarakti-Šuriaš as son of Kudur-Enlil. Another of his cylinders quotes his statue inscription, buried in a trench at the site of the temple: "Šhagarakti-šuriaš, a faithful shepherd, a revered prince, favorite of Šamaš and Anunit - am I. When Šamaš and Anunit, for lordship of the Land mentioned a name, they filled my hands with the leading string of all peoples. At that time Ebarra the temple of Šamaš of Sippar, my lord, and Eulmaš temple of Anunit of Sippar-Anunit, my lady, whose walls since the time of Zabum because of old age had sagged - their walls I demolished. Of their ruined foundations - I took away their earth. Their shrine(s) I preserved. Their plans I retained perfect. I filled in their foundations with earth; the supporting wall(s) I restored. Their walls in their places I embellished. Their appearance I rendered more excellent than before. Forever, O Šamaš and Anunit, because of my precious deeds may your hearts be glad. May they lengthen my days. May they renew (my) life. Days of joy, month(s) of happiness, years of prosperity may they grant (me) as a gift. A judgment of precision and justice may I speak, and may they cause peace to be always." — Inscription of Nabonidus, cylinder BM 104738, column III, lines 44 to 62. The Seal legend A clay tablet from the time of Sennacherib (705–681 BC) quotes a legendary inscription from a lapis lazuli seal. Originally the seal was in the possession of Shagarakti-Shuriash, but was carried off to Nineveh by Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243–1207 BC) as war booty when he sacked Babylon during Kaštiliašu’s reign, and he had his own inscription engraved on it without erasing the original. Sometime afterwards the seal again found its way back to Babylon, in circumstances unknown, where it was re-plundered, some six hundred years later by Sennacherib. A brick discovered in situ in Nippur has an inscription along its edge which shows that Šagarakti-Šuriaš commissioned work here on the Ekur of Enlil as well. Inscriptions 1. ^ "Babylonian King List A," BM 33332, a broken and badly worn tablet in the British Museum, provides his name in abbreviated form, "Šá-ga-rak-[ti-]," and the length of his reign. 2. ^ Tablet Ni 2891. 3. ^ Ni 2885.
  13. Title: "Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement," by James B. Pritchard
    Author: Princeton University Press, Mar 30, 2016
    Publication: Name: https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA565#v=snippet&q=Shagarakti&f=false;
    Note: This anthology brought together the most important historical, legal, mythological, liturgical, and secular texts of the ancient Near East, with the purpose of providing a rich contextual base for understanding the people, cultures, and literature of the Old Testament. A scholar of religious thought and biblical archaeology, James Pritchard recruited the foremost linguists, historians, and archaeologists to select and translate the texts. The goal, in his words, was "a better understanding of the likenesses and differences which existed between Israel and the surrounding cultures." Before the publication of these volumes, students of the Old Testament found themselves having to search out scattered books and journals in various languages. This anthology brought these invaluable documents together, in one place and in one language, thereby expanding the meaning and significance of the Bible for generations of students and readers. As one reviewer put it, "This great volume is one of the most notable to have appeared in the field of Old Testament scholarship this century." Princeton published a follow-up companion volume, "The Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament "(1954), and later a one-volume abridgment of the two, "The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures" (1958). The continued popularity of this work in its various forms demonstrates that anthologies have a very important role to play in education--and in the mission of a university press.
  14. Title: Wikiwand: Nisan
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Nisan;
    Note: "Nisan" (or "Nissan"; Hebrew: נִיסָן, Standard "Nisan," Tiberian: "Nîsān") on the Assyrian calendar is the first month, and on the Hebrew calendar is the first month of the ecclesiastical year and the seventh month (eighth, in leap year) of the civil year. The name of the month is of Assyrian-Babylonian origin; in the Torah it is called the month of the "Aviv" (e.g., Exodus 13:4 בְּחֹ֖דֶשׁ הָאָבִֽיב "ḥōḏeš hā-’āḇîḇ"). Assyrians today refer to the month as the "month of happiness." It is a spring month of 30 days. Nisan usually falls in March–April on the Gregorian calendar. In the Book of Esther in the Tanakh it is referred to as Nisan. Karaite Jews interpret it as referring to the month in which barley was ripe. Holidays and observances . 10 Nisan – Yahrzeit of Miriam the prophetess, sister of Moses and Aaron . 10 Nisan – Yom HaAliyah – Aliyah Day, Israeli national holiday . 14 Nisan – Fast of the Firstborn – on 12 Nisan when the 14th falls on Sabbath . 15–21 Nisan (22 Nisan outside of Israel) – Passover . 23 Nisan – Mimouna – Maghrebi Jewish celebration of the end of the Passover prohibition on eating chametz, on 22 Nisan within Israel . 26 Nisan – Traditional yahrzeit of Joshua . 27 Nisan – Yom HaShoah – on 26 Nisan or 28 Nisan when the 27th falls on Friday or Sunday respectively, interfering with Shabbat In Jewish history and tradition . 1 Nisan (circa 3761 BC) – Creation of the Universe according to Rabbi Joshua's opinion in the Talmud (Rosh Hashanah 10b–11a). . 1 Nisan (circa 1638 BC) – Death of Abraham according to the Talmud . 1 Nisan (circa 1533 BC) – Death of Isaac according to the Talmud . 1 Nisan (circa 1506 BC) – Death of Jacob according to the Talmud . 1 Nisan (circa 1456 BC) – First mitzvah is given to the Jewish people (Exodus 12:1–2) . 1 Nisan (circa 1455 BC) – Mishkan inaugurated;[3] death of Nadav and Avihu . 1 Nisan (1772 AD) – Birth of Rabbi Nachman of Breslov . 1 Nisan (1892 AD) – Death of Rabbi Elimelech Szapira of Grodzhisk . 2 Nisan (1920 AD) – Death of Rabbi Sholom DovBer Schneersohn ("Rashab"), the fifth Lubavitcher Rebbe. His last words are recorded as, "I'm going to heaven; I leave you the writings." . 3 Nisan (1492 AD) – The Alhambra Decree orders the expulsion of Spanish Jews from Castile and Aragon (but not Navarre). . 7 Nisan (circa 1416 BC) – Joshua sends two spies to Jericho.. 8 Nisan (1948 AD) - Birth of Rabbi Yaakov Yechezkia Greenwald II, the present Pupa Rebbe . 10 Nisan (circa 1456 BC) – The first Shabbat HaGadol was celebrated by the Israelites in Egypt five days before The Exodus. . 10 Nisan (circa 1417 BCE) – Death of Miriam, 39 years after the Exodus. . 10 Nisan (circa 1416 BC) – The Israelites cross the Jordan river into Canaan (Joshua 4) . 11 Nisan (1270 AD) – Death of Nachmanides . 11 Nisan (1902 AD) – Birth of 7th Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson . 13 Nisan (circa 474 BC) – Haman's decree to annihilate the Jews is passed. . 13 Nisan (1575 AD) – Death of Rabbi Joseph Caro, author of the Shulchan Aruch. . 13 Nisan (1866 AD) – Death of Tzemach Tzedek, the third Rebbe of Chabad. . 14 Nisan (1135 AD) – Birth of Maimonides . 14 Nisan (1943 AD) – Warsaw Ghetto uprising begins. The uprising would last until Iyar 3, and is now commemorated in Israel on 27 Nisan. . 15 Nisan (circa 1713 BC) – Birth of Isaac . 15 Nisan (circa 1456 BC) – The Exodus from Egypt . 15 Nisan (474 BC) – Esther appears before Achashverosh unsummoned and invites him and Haman to a feast to be held the same day. During the feast she requests that the king and Haman attend a second feast the next day. . 16 Nisan (circa 1273 BC) – The Children of Israel stop eating Manna, six days after entering the Holy Land. . 16 Nisan (circa 474 BC) – Esther's second feast during which she accuses Haman regarding his plot to annihilate her nation. Achashverosh orders his servants to hang Haman. . 17 Nisan (circa 24th century BC) – Noah's Ark came to rest on mountains of Ararat . 17 Nisan (circa 474 BC) – Haman hanged after Queen Esther's second drinking party. . 21 Nisan (circa 1456 BC) – The sea splits, allowing Israel to escape the Egyptian army. . 26 Nisan (circa 1386 BC) – Death of Joshua . 28 Nisan (circa 1415 BC) – Conquest of Jericho by Joshua (Book of Joshua ch. 6). . 29 Nisan (1620 AD) – Death of Rabbi Chaim Vital, a Kabbalist and a disciple of Rabbi Isaac Luria. . 29 Nisan (1699 AD) – In Bamberg, Germany during a commercial crisis in 1699, the populace rose up against the Jews, and one Jew saved himself by throwing prunes from a gable-window down upon the mob. That event, the 29th of Nisan, called "Zwetschgen-Ta'anit" (Prune-Fast), was commemorated by a fast and a Purim festivity until the extermination of the Jewish community there. Other uses . In the Akkadian of Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia nisānu, which derives from Sumerian nisag "First fruits." . "Nisan" is also the name for the month of April in Arabic (Arabic: نيسان‎), a later Semitic language (see Arabic names of calendar months), in Kurdish and modern Turkish. . In the story of Xenogears, "Nisan" is the name of a country, named after the Hebrew month. . Quartodecimanism
  15. Title: Wikiwand: Tukulti-Ninurta I
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Tukulti-Ninurta_I;
    Note: Tukulti-Ninurta I (meaning: "my trust is in [the warrior god] Ninurta"; reigned 1243–1207 BC) was a king of Assyria during the Middle Assyrian Empire (1366–1050 BC). He is known as the first king to use the title "King of Kings." Biography Tukulti-Ninurta I succeeded Shalmaneser I, his father, as king and won a major victory against the Hittite Empire at the Battle of Nihriya in the first half of his reign, appropriating Hittite territory in Asia Minor and the Levant. Tukulti-Ninurta I retained Assyrian control of Urartu, and later defeated Kashtiliash IV, the Kassite king of Babylonia, and captured the rival city of Babylon to ensure full Assyrian supremacy over Mesopotamia. He set himself up as king of Babylon, thus becoming the first native Mesopotamian to rule there, its previous kings having all been non-native Amorites or Kassites. He took on the ancient title "King of Sumer and Akkad" first used by Sargon of Akkad. Tukulti-Ninurta had petitioned the god Shamash before beginning his counter offensive. Kashtiliash IV was captured, single-handed by Tukulti-Ninurta according to his account, who "trod with my feet upon his lordly neck as though it were a footstool" and deported him ignominiously in chains to Assyria. The victorious Assyrian demolished the walls of Babylon, massacred many of the inhabitants, pillaged and plundered his way across the city to the Esagila temple, where he made off with the statue of Marduk. After capturing Babylonia, he invaded the Arabian Peninsula, conquering the pre-Arab states of Dilmun and Meluhha. Middle Assyrian texts recovered at ancient Dūr-Katlimmu include a letter from Tukulti-Ninurta to his "sukkal rabi'u," or grand vizier, Ashur-iddin advising him of the approach of his general Shulman-mushabshu escorting the captive Kashtiliash, his wife, and his retinue which incorporated a large number of women, on his way to exile after his defeat. In the process he defeated the Elamites, who had themselves coveted Babylon. He also wrote an epic poem documenting his wars against Babylon and Elam. After a Babylonian revolt, he raided and plundered the temples in Babylon, regarded as an act of sacrilege to all Mesopotamians, including Assyrians. As relations with the priesthood in Ashur began deteriorating, Tukulti-Ninurta built a new capital city; Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. However, his sons rebelled against him and besieged him in his new city. During the siege, he was murdered. One of them, Ashur-nadin-apli, would succeed him on the throne. After his death, the Assyrian Empire fell into a brief period of stagnation. The "Tukulti-Ninurta Epic" describes the war between Tukulti-Ninurta I and Kashtiliash IV. Julian Jaynes identifies this king as the historical origin for Nimrod in the Old Testament. Sources 1. ^ J. M. Munn-Rankin (1975). "Assyrian Military Power, 1300–1200 B.C.", in I. E. S. Edwards (ed.) Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 287–288, 298. 2. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, (ed) I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. L. Hammond, Edition 3, revised, Cambridge University Press, 1975, ISBN 0-521-08691-4, ISBN 978-0-521-08691-2, pg. 284-295 3. ^ Julian Jaynes (2000). "The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind." Mariner Books. p. 228. Retrieved 2013-06-16.
  16. Title: "Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia," by Stephen Bertman
    Author: OUP USA, Jul 14, 2005
    Publication: Name: https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC&dq=Sharma-Adad+I+of+Assyria&q=Adad-shuma-usur#v=snippet&q=Shagarakti&f=false;
    Note: Modern-day archaeological discoveries in the Near East continue to illuminate our understanding of the ancient world, including the many contributions made by the people of Mesopotamia to literature, art, government, and urban life The Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia describes the culture, history, and people of this land, as well as their struggle for survival and happiness, from about 3500 to 500 BCE. Mesopotamia was the home of a succession of glorious civilizations—Sumeria, Babylonia, and Assyria—which flourished together for more than three millennia. Sumerian mathematicians devised the sixty-minute hour that still rules our lives; Babylonian architects designed the famed Tower of Babel and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon; Assyrian kings and generals, in the name of imperialism, conducted some of the shrewdest military campaigns in recorded history. Readers will identify with the literary works of these civilizations, such as the Code of Hammurabi and the Epic of Gilgamesh, as they are carried across centuries to a period in time intimately entwined with the story of the Bible. Maps and line drawings provide examples of Mesopotamian geography, while other chapters present the Mesopotamian struggle to create civilized life in a fertile land racked by brutal conquest.
  17. Title: Wikiwand: Cuneiform
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Cuneiform;
    Note: Cuneiform, or Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform, was one of the earliest systems of writing, invented by Sumerians in ancient Mesopotamia. It is distinguished by its wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets, made by means of a blunt reed for a stylus. The name "cuneiform," itself simply means "wedge-shaped." Emerging in Sumer in the late fourth millennium BC (the Uruk IV period) to convey the Sumerian language, which was a language isolate, cuneiform writing began as a system of pictograms, stemming from an earlier system of shaped tokens used for accounting. In the third millennium, the pictorial representations became simplified and more abstract as the number of characters in use grew smaller (Hittite cuneiform). The system consists of a combination of logophonetic, consonantal alphabetic, and syllabic signs. The original Sumerian script was adapted for the writing of the Semitic Akkadian (Assyrian/Babylonian), Eblaite and Amorite languages, the language isolates Elamite, Hattic, Hurrian and Urartian, as well as Indo-European languages Hittite and Luwian; it inspired the later Semitic Ugaritic alphabet as well as Old Persian cuneiform. Cuneiform writing was gradually replaced by the Phoenician alphabet during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–612 BC). By the second century AD, the script had become extinct, its last traces being found in Assyria and Babylonia, and all knowledge of how to read it was lost until it began to be deciphered in the 19th century. Geoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably, [were] invented under the influence of the latter," and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia." There are many instances of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations at the time of the invention of writing, and standard reconstructions of the development of writing generally place the development of the Sumerian proto-cuneiform script before the development of Egyptian hieroglyphs, with the suggestion the former influenced the latter. Between half a million and two million cuneiform tablets are estimated to have been excavated in modern times, of which only approximately 30,000–100,000 have been read or published. The British Museum holds the largest collection (c. 130,000), followed by the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin, the Louvre, the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, the National Museum of Iraq, the Yale Babylonian Collection (c. 40,000), and Penn Museum. Most of these have "lain in these collections for a century without being translated, studied or published," as there are only a few hundred qualified cuneiformists in the world. History An ancient Mesopotamian poem gives the first known story of the invention of writing: "Because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat (the message), the Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and put words on it, like a tablet. Until then, there had been no putting words on clay." — "Sumerian epic poem Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta. Circa 1800 BC." The cuneiform writing system was in use for more than three millennia, through several stages of development, from the 31st century BC down to the second century AD. Ultimately, it was replaced completely by alphabetic writing (in the general sense) in the course of the Roman era, and there are no cuneiform systems in current use. It had to be deciphered as a completely unknown writing system in 19th-century Assyriology. Successful completion of its deciphering is dated to 1857. The cuneiform script underwent considerable changes over a period of more than two millennia. The image below shows the development of the sign SAĜ "head" (Borger nr. 184, U+12295 𒊕). [picture of pictograms] Stages: 1. shows the pictogram as it was drawn around 3000 BC 2. shows the rotated pictogram as written from c. 2800–2600 BC 3. shows the abstracted glyph in archaic monumental inscriptions, from c. 2600 BC 4. is the sign as written in clay, contemporary to stage 3 5. represents the late 3rd millennium BC 6. represents Old Assyrian ductus of the early 2nd millennium BC, as adopted into Hittite 7. is the simplified sign as written by Assyrian scribes in the early 1st millennium BC and until the script's extinction. Pictographic and proto-cuneiform characters See also: Kish tablet The cuneiform script was developed from pictographic proto-writing in the late 4th millennium BC, stemming from the near eastern token system used for accounting. These tokens were in use from the 9th millennium BC and remained in occasional use even late in the 2nd millennium BC. It has been suggested that the token shapes were the original basis for some of the Sumerian pictographs. Mesopotamia's "proto-literate" period spans roughly the 35th to 32nd centuries BC. The first documents unequivocally written in Sumerian date to the 31st century BC at Jemdet Nasr. Originally, pictographs were either drawn on clay tablets in vertical columns with a sharpened reed stylus or incised in stone. This early style lacked the characteristic wedge shape of the strokes. Certain signs to indicate names of gods, countries, cities, vessels, birds, trees, etc., are known as determinatives and were the Sumerian signs of the terms in question, added as a guide for the reader. Proper names continued to be usually written in purely "logographic" fashion. The earliest known Sumerian king, whose name appears on contemporary cuneiform tablets, is Enmebaragesi of Kish. Surviving records only very gradually become less fragmentary and more complete for the following reigns, but by the end of the pre-Sargonic period, it had become standard practice for each major city-state to date documents by year-names commemorating the exploits of its "lugal" (king). From about 2900 BC, many pictographs began to lose their original function, and a given sign could have various meanings depending on context. The sign inventory was reduced from some 1,500 signs to some 600 signs, and writing became increasingly phonological. Determinative signs were re-introduced to avoid ambiguity. Cuneiform writing proper thus arises from the more primitive system of pictographs at about that time (Early Bronze Age II). Archaic cuneiform Further information: Liste der archaischen Keilschriftzeichen and Early Dynastic Cuneiform In the mid-3rd millennium BC, a new wedge-tipped stylus was introduced that was pushed into the clay, producing wedge-shaped ("cuneiform") signs; the development made writing quicker and easier. By adjusting the relative position of the stylus to the tablet, the writer could use a single tool to make a variety of impressions. The direction of writing remained to be from top-to-bottom and right-to-left, until the mid-2nd millennium BC. Cuneiform tablets could be fired in kilns to bake them hard, and so provide a permanent record, or they could be left moist and recycled if permanence was not needed. Many of the clay tablets found by archaeologists have been preserved by chance, baked when attacking armies burned the buildings in which they were kept. The script also was used widely on commemorative stelae and carved reliefs to record the achievements of the ruler in whose honor the monument had been erected. The spoken language included many homophones and near-homophones, and in the beginning, similar-sounding words such as "life" [til] and "arrow" [ti] were written with the same symbol. After the Semites conquered Southern Mesopotamia, some signs gradually changed from being pictograms to syllabograms, most likely to make things clearer in writing. In that way, the sign for the word "arrow" would become the sign for the sound "ti." Words that sounded alike would have different signs; for instance, the syllable "gu" had fourteen different symbols. When the words had a similar meaning but very different sounds they were written with the same symbol. For instance "tooth" [zu], "mouth" [ka] and "voice" [gu] were all written with the symbol for "voice." To be more accurate, scribes started adding to signs or combining two signs to define the meaning. They used either geometrical patterns or another cuneiform sign. As time went by, the cuneiform got very complex and the distinction between a pictogram and syllabogram became vague. Several symbols had too many meanings to permit clarity. Therefore, symbols were put together to indicate both the sound and the meaning of a compound. The word "Raven" [UGA] had the same logogram as the word "soap" [NAGA], the name of a city [EREŠ], and the patron goddess of Eresh [NISABA]. Two phonetic complements were used to define the word [u] in front of the symbol and [gu] behind. Finally, the symbol for "bird" [MUŠEN] was added to ensure proper interpretation. Written Sumerian was used as a scribal language until the first century AD. The spoken language died out around the 18th century BC. Akkadian cuneiform The archaic cuneiform script was adopted by the Akkadian Empire from the 23rd century BC (short chronology), and by the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (20th century BC), it had evolved into Old Assyrian cuneiform, with many modifications to Sumerian orthography. The Semitic languages employed equivalents for many signs that were distorted or abbreviated to represent new values because the syllabic nature of the script as refined by the Sumerians was not intuitive to Semitic speakers. At this stage, the former pictograms were reduced to a high level of abstraction, and were composed of only five basic wedge shapes: horizontal, vertical, two diagonals and the Winkelhaken impressed vertically by the tip of the stylus. The signs exemplary of these basic wedges are . AŠ (B001, U+12038) 𒀸: horizontal; . DIŠ (B748, U+12079) 𒁹: vertical; . GE23, DIŠ "tenû" (B575, U+12039) 𒀹: downward diagonal; . GE22 (B647, U+1203A) 𒀺: upward diagonal; . (B661, U+1230B) 𒌋: the "Winkelhaken." Signs tilted by about 45..
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