Karaindaš , 15th Kassite King of Babylon I

• Preferred Name: Karaindaš , 15th Kassite King of Babylon I^{[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21]}
  
• Gender: M
  
• Birth: 1480 BC
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: 15th Kassite King of BabylonABT 1410 BC with note: Wikiwand: Karaindash
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: 15th Kassite King of the 3rd Dynasty (the Kassite Dynasty) of Babylonia
  
• FSID: L5YX-QGX
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: King of the Kassites, King of Karduniaš (inscribed "ka-ru-du-ni-ia-aš," probably the Kassite language designation for the kingdom and the earliest extant attestation of this name). with note: Wikiwand: Karaindash
  
• Ruling+House:+Kassite: with note: Wikiwand: Karaindash
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: King of Sumer and Akkad
  
• Death: AFT 1410 BC
  
• Notes:

  === Life Sketch ===
  Karaindaš was one of the more prominent rulers of the Kassite dynasty and reigned towards the end of the 15th century BC. An inscription on a tablet detailing building work calls him “Mighty King, King of Babylonia, King of Sumer and Akkad, King of the Kassites, King of Karduniaš,” inscribed ka-ru-du-ni-ia-aš, probably the Kassite language designation for their kingdom and the earliest extant attestation of this name.
  
  Karaindaš’ own eleven-line Sumerian inscriptions adorn bricks from the Temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna, in Uruk, where he commissioned the spectacular façade pictured. It is 205 cm high and would originally have been constructed from around five hundred pre-formed baked bricks, which were set in recessed socles, depicting both male and female deities holding water jugs. The bearded males wear horned flat caps and double streams of water flow symmetrically to frame the niches. Apart from the simple dedication, there are no significant texts adorning the façades.
  
  The temple to Inanna was originally located in a courtyard of the Eanna, or “House of Heaven”, precinct of Uruk and stood until the Seleucid era. It was a rectangular building with a long cella and ante-cella surrounded by corridors and the elaborately decorated external wall with corner bulwarks. The inner sanctuary had the cult image at the end, instead of the usual siting in the middle of a long wall.
  
  He concluded a boundary treaty (riksu) with Aššur-bêl-nišešu of Assyria (1407-1399; short chronology), “together with an oath (māmītu)” according to the Synchronistic Chronicle.
  According to Sassmannshausen, it is very likely that Karaindaš was the Babylonian king who sent precious gifts, including lapis lazuli, to pharaoh Thutmosis III during his 8th campaign, the attack on the Mitanni, according to the annals of Thutmosis III. This was conducted in the 33rd of his reign or around 1447 BC according to the Low Chronology of Ancient Egypt, suggesting Karaindaš had a very long reign if this chronology coincides with that of the short chronology used for the Near East, but there are chronological difficulties trying to correlate Tuthmosis and Karaindaš.
  
  Burna-Buriash II, in his Amarna correspondence with Pharaoh Akhenaten, in the tablet designated EA 10, describes him as the first to enter into friendly relations with Egypt, “Since the time of Karaindaš, since messengers of your ancestors have come regularly to my ancestors, up to the present they (the ancestors of the two lands) have been good friends.” The Annals of Tuthmosis, inscribed on the inside walls of the corridor which surrounds the granite holy of holies of the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak, record the tribute of Babylon, and include a lapis lazuli ram’s head amongst the inventory.

1. Title: Wikiwand: Chronology of the ancient Near East
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Chronology_of_the_ancient_Near_East#/Variant_Bronze_Age_chronologies;
   Note: The chronology of the ancient Near East is a framework of dates for various events, rulers and dynasties. Historical inscriptions and texts customarily record events in terms of a succession of officials or rulers: "in the year X of king Y." Comparing many records pieces together a relative chronology relating dates in cities over a wide area. For the first millennium BC, the relative chronology can be matched to actual calendar years by identifying significant astronomical events. An inscription from the tenth year of Assyrian king Ashur-Dan III refers to an eclipse of the sun, and astronomical calculations among the range of plausible years date the eclipse to 15 June 763 BC. This can be corroborated by other mentions of astronomical events, and a secure absolute chronology established, tying the relative chronologies to our own calendar. For the third and second millennia, this correlation is less certain. A key document is the cuneiform Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, preserving record of astronomical observations of Venus during the reign of the Babylonian king Ammisaduqa, known to be the fourth ruler after Hammurabi in the "relative calendar." In the series, the conjunction of the rise of Venus with the new moon provides a point of reference, or rather three points, for the conjunction is a periodic occurrence. Identifying an Ammisaduqa conjunction with one of these calculated conjunctions will therefore fix, for example, the accession of Hammurabi as either 1848, 1792, or 1736 BC, known as the "high" ("long"), "middle," and "short (or low) chronology." For the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, the following periods can be distinguished: 1. Early Bronze Age: A series of rulers and dynasties whose existence is based mostly on the "Sumerian King List" besides some that are attested epigraphically (e.g. En-me-barage-si). No absolute dates within a certainty better than a century can be assigned to this period. 2. Middle to Late Bronze Age: Beginning with the Akkadian Empire around 2300 BC, the chronological evidence becomes internally more consistent. A good picture can be drawn of who succeeded whom, and synchronisms between Mesopotamia, the Levant and the more robust chronology of Ancient Egypt can be established. The assignment of absolute dates is a matter of dispute; the conventional middle chronology fixes the sack of Babylon at 1595 BC while the "short chronology" gives 1531 BC. 3. The Bronze Age collapse: A "Dark Age" begins with the fall of Babylonian Dynasty III (Kassite) around 1200 BC, the invasions of the Sea Peoples and the collapse of the Hittite Empire. 4. Early Iron Age: Around 900 BC, written records once again become more numerous with the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, establishing secure absolute dates. Classical sources such as the Canon of Ptolemy, the works of Berossus, and the Hebrew Bible provide chronological support and synchronisms. An eclipse in 763 BC anchors the Assyrian list of imperial officials. Variant Bronze Age chronologies Due to the sparsity of sources throughout the "Dark Age," the history of the Near Eastern Bronze Age down to the end of the Third Babylonian Dynasty is a floating or relative chronology. The major schools of thought on the length of the Dark Age are separated by 56 or 64 years. This is because the key source for their dates is the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa and the visibility of Venus has a 56/64[clarification needed] year cycle. More recent work by Vahe Gurzadyan has suggested that the fundamental 8-year cycle of Venus is a better metric. However, some scholars discount the validity of the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa entirely. There have been attempts to anchor the chronology using records of eclipses and other methods, but they are not yet widely supported. The alternative major chronologies are defined by the date of the 8th year of the reign of Ammisaduqa, king of Babylon. This choice then defines the reign of Hammurabi. The "middle chronology" (reign of Hammurabi 1792–1750 BC) is commonly encountered in literature, including many current textbooks on the archaeology and history of the ancient Near East. The alternative "short" (or "low") chronology is less commonly followed, and the "long" (or "high") and "ultra-short" (or "ultra-low") chronologies are clear minority views. A recent analysis combining dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating supported the middle chronology as most likely. A further refinement by the same group shifted that to the "low-middle chronology" 8 years lower. As mentioned below, at present there are no continuous chronologies for the Near East, and a floating chronology has been developed using trees in Anatolia for the Bronze and Iron Ages. Until a continuous sequence is developed, the usefulness of dendrochronology for improving the chronology of the Ancient Near East is limited. For much of the period in question, middle chronology dates can be calculated by adding 64 years to the corresponding short chronology date (e.g. 1728 BC in short chronology corresponds to 1792 in middle chronology). The following table gives an overview of the competing proposals, listing some key dates and their deviation relative to the short chronology: Chronology Ammisaduqa Year 8 Reign of Hammurabi Fall of Babylon I ± Ultra-Low 1542 BC 1696–1654 BC 1499 BC +32 a Short or Low 1574 BC 1728–1686 BC 1531 BC +0 a Middle 1638 BC 1792–1750 BC 1595 BC −64 a Long or High 1694 BC 1848–1806 BC 1651 BC −120 a The chronologies of Mesopotamia, the Levant and Anatolia depend significantly on the chronology of Ancient Egypt. To the extent that there are problems in the Egyptian chronology, these issues will be inherited in chronologies based on synchronisms with Ancient Egypt. Sources of chronological data Inscriptional Thousands of cuneiform tablets have been found in an area running from Anatolia to Egypt. While many are the ancient equivalent of grocery receipts, these tablets, along with inscriptions on buildings and public monuments, provide the major source of chronological information for the ancient Middle East. Underlying issues . State of materials While there are some relatively pristine display-quality objects, the vast majority of recovered tables and inscriptions are damaged. They have been broken with only portions found, intentionally defaced, and damaged by weather or soil. Many tablets were not even baked and have to be carefully handled until they can be hardened by heating. . Provenance The site of an item's recovery is an important piece of information for archaeologists, which can be compromised by two factors. First, in ancient times old materials were often reused as building material or fill, sometimes at a great distance from the original location. Secondly, looting has disturbed archaeological sites at least back to Roman times, making the provenance of looted objects difficult or impossible to determine. . Multiple versions Key documents like the "Sumerian King List" repeatedly were copied over generations, resulting in multiple variant versions of a chronological source. It can be very hard to determine the authentic version. . Translation The translation of cuneiform documents is quite difficult, especially for damaged source material. Additionally, our knowledge of the underlying languages, like Akkadian and Sumerian, have evolved over time, so a translation done now may be quite different than one done in AD 1900: there can be honest disagreement over what a document says. Worse, the majority of archaeological finds have not yet been published, much less translated. Those held in private collections may never be. . Political slant Many of our important source documents, such as the Assyrian King List, are the products of government and religious establishments, with a natural bias in favor of the king or god in charge. A king may even take credit for a battle or construction project of an earlier ruler. The Assyrians in particular have a literary tradition of putting the best possible face on history, a fact the interpreter must constantly keep in mind. King Lists Historical lists of rulers were traditional in the ancient Near East. . Sumerian King List Covers rulers of Mesopotamia from a time "before the flood" to the fall of the Isin Dynasty. For many early city-states, it is the only source of chronological data. However many early rulers are listed with fantastically long reigns. Some scholars speculate that this stems from an error in transcribing the original base 60 arithmetic of the Sumerians to the later decimal-based system of the Akkadians. . Babylonian King List This list deals only with the rulers of Babylon. It has been found in two versions, denoted A and B. The later dynasties in the list document the Kassite and Sealand periods. There is also a Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period in later part of the 1st millennium. . Assyrian King List Found in multiple differing copies, this tablet lists all the kings of Assyria and their regnal lengths back into the mists of time, with the portions with reasonable data beginning around the 14th century BC. When combined with the various Assyrian chronicles, the Assyrian King List anchors the chronology of the 1st millennium. . Indus Valley King List A list of Indus Valley Civilization kings was compiled by Laurence Waddell, but it is not generally accepted or well regarded by mainstream academia. Chronicles Many chronicles have been recovered in the ancient Near East, most fragmentary; but when combined with other sources, they provide a rich source of chronological data. . Synchronistic Chronicle Found in the library of Assurbanipal in Nineveh, it records the diplomacy of the Assyrian empire with the Babylonian empire. While useful, the consensus is that this chronicle should not be considered reliable. . Chronicle P While quite incomplete, this tablet provides the same type of information as the Assyrian Synchronistic Chronicle,..
   
2. Title: Wikiwand: Karduniaš
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Kardunia%C5%A1;
   Note: Karduniaš, also transcribed Karduniash, Karaduniyaš or Karaduniše), is a Kassite term used for the kingdom centered on Babylonia and founded by the Kassite dynasty. It is used in the 1350-1335 BC Amarna letters correspondence, and is also used frequently in Middle-Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian texts to refer to the kingdom of Babylon. The name Karaduniyaš is mainly used in the letters written between Kadashman-Enlil I, or Burna-Buriash, the Kings of Babylon, and the Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt-(called: Mizri), letters EA 1-EA 11, a subcorpus of letters, (EA for 'el Amarna'). Much later, a version of the name was used in the Babylonian Talmud as Kardunya referring to similar locations. There are two additional letters in the 382–letter Amarna corpus that reference Karaduniyaš. The first is a damaged, and partial letter, EA 200, (with no author), regarding "Ahlameans," (similar to the Suteans); the title is: "About Ahlameans." The second letter is complete and undamaged, a letter from one of the sons of Labaya, namely Mutbaal-("Mut-Bahli," or "Mut-Ba'lu"), letter EA 255. Two example letters of "Karaduniyaš" EA 255, Mutbaal letter no. 1 of 2, title: "No destination too far" Letter 255 by Mutbaal, about caravans, seems to imply that his location in western Jordan, (as "Mayor of Pihilu"-(modern Pella, Jordan)), was an important trade route to the east to Babylonia, or north to Mittani. "Say [t]o the king, [my] lord and my Sun: Thus Mu'-Bahl[u], your servant, the dirt at your feet, the mire you tread on. I fall at the feet of the king, my lord, 7 times and 7 times. The king, my lord, sent Haaya to me to say, 'A caravan to Hanagalbat-(Mitanni), is this (man) to send on, and (all of you) send it on!' Who am I that I would not send on a caravan of the king, my lord, seeing that [La]b 'ayu, my father, [used to ser]ve the king, his lord, [and] he [himself] used to send on [all the carav]ans [that] the king [would se]nd to Hanagalbat. Let the king, my lord, send a caravan even to Karaduniyaš. I will personally conduct it under very heavy guard." -EA 255, lines 1-25 (complete) EA 9, Burna-Buriash letter no. 4 of 6, title: "Ancient loyalties, new request" (Para I, 1-6) "Say- ('qabu' ['qí-bil-ma']) to Nibhurrereya, the king of Egy[pt-(Mizri), my brother ]: '(message)-Thus'-(um-ma), Thus, the king of Karad[un]iyaš, your brother. For me all goes well. For you, your household, your wives, your sons, your country, your ma[g]nates, your horses, your chariots, may all go very well. (Para II, 7-18) "From the time my ancestors and your ancestors made a mutual declaration of friendship, they sen[t] beautiful greeting-gifts to each other, and refused no request for anything beautiful. My brother has now sent me 2–minas of gold as my greeting-gift. Now, (i)f gold is plentiful, overflowing, send me as much as your ancestors (sent), but if it is scarce, send me half of what your ancestors (sent). Why have you sent me 2–minas of gold? At the moment my work on a temple is extensive, and I am quite busy with carrying it out. Send me much gold. And you for your part, whatever you want from my country, write me so that it may be taken to you." (Para III, 19-38) "In the time of Kurigalzu, my ancestor, all the Canaanites wrote here to him, saying, 'C[om]e to the border of the country so we can revolt and be allied [wi]th you!' My ancestor sent them this (reply), saying, 'Forget about being allied with me. If you become enemies of the king of Egypt, and are allied with anyone else—will I not then come and plunder you? How can there be an alliance with me?' – For the sake of your ancestor, my ancestor did not listen to them. Now, as for my Assyrian vassals-(i.e. Ashur-uballit I, king), I was not the one who sent them to you. Why on their own authority have they come to your country? If you love me, they will conduct no business whatsoever. Send them off to me empty–handed. I send to you as your greeting-gift 3–minas of genuine lapis lazuli, and 5–teams of horses for 5–wooden chariots." -EA 9, lines 1-38 (3 paragraphs) (complete)
   
3. Title: Wikiwand: Ashur-bel-nisheshu
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Ashur-bel-nisheshu;
   Note: Aššūr-bēl-nīšēšu, inscribed "aš-šur-"EN-UN.MEŠ-"-šú," and meaning "(the god) Aššur (is) lord of his people," was the ruler of Assyria from 1417–1409 BC or 1407–1398 BC (short chronology), the variants due to uncertainties in the later chronology. He succeeded his father, Aššur-nērārī II, to the throne and is best known for his treaty with Kassite king Karaindaš. Biography As was the practice during this period of the Assyrian monarchy, he modestly titled himself "vice-regent," or "išši'ak Aššur," of the god Ashur. The "Synchronistic Chronicle" records his apparently amicable territorial treaty with Karaindaš, king of Babylon, and recounts that they "took an oath together concerning this very boundary." His numerous clay cone inscriptions (line art for an example pictured) celebrate his re-facing of Puzur-Aššur III’s wall of the “New City” district of Assur. Contemporanous legal documents detail sales of land, houses, and slaves and payment in lead. The Assyrian credit system was fairly sophisticated, with loans issued for commodities such as barley and lead, interest coming due when repayment way delayed. The security posted for loans could include property, the person of the debtor or indeed his children. There is a discrepancy in the data about his son and eventual successor. The Assyrian King List gives his immediate successor, Aššur-rā’im-nišēšu, as his son, but Aššur-rā’im-nišēšu's own contemporary inscription names his father as Aššur-nērārī II, suggesting that he may have been a brother of Aššūr-bēl-nīšēšu. The confusion is further compounded with the "Khorsabad Kinglist" and the "SDAS Kinglist" identifying Eriba-Adad I, who ascended the throne eighteen years later, as his son while the "Nassouhi" copy identifies him as the son of Aššur-rā’im-nišēšu. Inscriptions 1. ^ a b "Nassouhi King List," Istanbul A. 116 (Assur 8836), iii 11–12. 2. ^ a b "Khorsabad King List," IM 60017 (excavation nos.: DS 828, DS 32-54), iii 5–6. 3. ^ a b "SDAS King List," tablet IM 60484, ii 38. 4. ^ Cone VAT 7442, first published KAH 2 no. 22 (1922). 5. ^ "Synchronistic Chronicle" (ABC 21), tablet K4401a, i 1–4. 6. ^ Cone VAT? 2764, first published KAH 1 no. 63 (1911).
   
4. Title: Wikiwand: Cella
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Cella;
   Note: A cella (from Latin for small chamber) or naos (from the Greek ναός, "temple") is the inner chamber of an ancient Greek or Roman temple in classical antiquity. Its enclosure within walls has given rise to extended meanings, of a hermit's or monk's cell, and since the 17th century, of a biological cell in plants or animals. Greek and Roman temples In ancient Greek and Roman temples the cella was a room at the center of the building, usually containing a cult image or statue representing the particular deity venerated in the temple. In addition, the cella may contain a table or plinth to receive votive offerings such as votive statues, precious and semi-precious stones, helmets, spear and arrow heads, swords, and war trophies. The accumulated offerings made Greek and Roman temples virtual treasuries, and many of them were indeed used as treasuries during antiquity. The cella was typically a simple, windowless, rectangular room with a door or open entrance at the front behind a colonnaded portico facade. In larger temples, the cella was typically divided by two colonnades into a central nave flanked by two aisles. A cella also may contain an "adyton," an inner area restricted to access by the priests – in religions that had a consecrated priesthood – or by the temple guard. With very few exceptions, Greek buildings were of a peripteral design that placed the cella in the center of the plan, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Apollo at Paestum. The Romans favored pseudoperipteral buildings with a portico offsetting the cella to the rear. The pseudoperipteral plan uses engaged columns embedded along the side and rear walls of the cella. The Temple of Venus and Roma built by Hadrian in Rome had two cellae arranged back-to-back enclosed by a single outer peristyle. Etruscan temples According to Vitruvius, the Etruscan type of temples (as, for example, at Portonaccio near Veio) had three cellae, side by side, conjoined by a double row of columns on the facade. This is an entirely new setup with respect to the other types of constructions found in Etruria and the Tyrrhenian side of Italy, which have one cell with or without columns, as seen in Greece and the Orient. Egyptian temples In the Hellenistic culture of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in ancient Egypt, the "cella" referred to that which is hidden and unknown inside the inner sanctum of a Egyptian temple, existing in complete darkness, meant to symbolize the state of the universe before the act of creation. The "cella," also called the "naos," holds many box-like shrines. The Greek word "naos" has been extended by archaeologists to describe the central room of the pyramids. Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, "naos" construction went from being subterranean to being built directly into the pyramid, above ground. The "naos" was surrounded by many different paths and rooms, many used to confuse and divert thieves and grave robbers. Christian churches In early Christian and Byzantine architecture, the cella or naos is an area at the center of the church reserved for performing the liturgy. In later periods a small chapel or monk's cell was also called a "cella." This is the source of the Irish language "cill" or "cell" (Anglicised as Kil(l)-) in many Irish place names.
   
5. Title: Wikiwand: Short chronology
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Short_chronology;
   Note: The short chronology is one of the chronologies of the Near Eastern Bronze and Early Iron Age, which fixes the reign of Hammurabi to 1728–1686 BC and the sack of Babylon to 1531 BC. The absolute 2nd millennium BC dates resulting from these reference points have very little academic support, and have essentially been disproved by recent dendrochronology research. The "middle chronology" (reign of Hammurabi 1792–1750 BC) is more commonly accepted in academic literature. For much of the period in question, middle chronology dates can be calculated by adding 64 years to the corresponding short chronology date (e.g. 1728 BC in short chronology corresponds to 1792 in middle chronology). After the so-called "dark age" between the fall of Babylon and the rise of the Kassite dynasty in Babylonia, absolute dating becomes less uncertain. While exact dates are still not agreed upon, the 64-year middle/short chronology gap ceases from the beginning of the Third Babylon Dynasty onward. Early Bronze Age Estimation of absolute dates becomes possible for the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. For the first half of the 3rd millennium, only very rough chronological matching of archaeological dates with written records is possible. Kings of Ebla Main article: Ebla The city-states of Ebla and Mari (in modern Syria) competed for power at this time. Eventually, under Irkab-Damu, Ebla defeated Mari for control of the region just in time to face the rise of Uruk and Akkad. After years of back and forth, Ebla was destroyed by the Akkadian Empire. Pottery seals of the Egyptian pharaoh Pepi I have been found in the wreckage of the city. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Igrish-Halam c. 2300 BC Irkab-Damu Contemporary of Iblul-Il of Mari Ar-Ennum or Reshi-Ennum Ibrium or Ebrium Contemporary of Tudiya of Assyria (treaty) Ibbi-Sipish or Ibbi-Zikir Son of Ibrium Dubuhu-Ada Ebla destroyed by Naram-Sin of Akkad or Sargon of Akkad Sumer Further information: Sumerian king list Third Dynasty of Uruk Further information: Uruk Lugal-zage-si of Umma rules from Uruk after defeating Lagash, eventually falling to the emerging Akkadian Empire. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Lugal-zage-si 2295–2271 BC Defeats Urukagina of Lagash and is in turn defeated by Sargon of Akkad Dynasty of Akkad Further information: Akkad Since Akkad (or Agade), the capital of the Akkadian Empire, has not yet been found, available chronological data comes from outlying locations like Ebla, Tell Brak, Nippur, Susa and Tell Leilan. Clearly, the expansion of Akkad came under the rules of Sargon and Naram-sin. Its last king, Shar-kali-sharri barely held the empire together, but upon his death, it fragmented. Finally, the city of Akkad itself was destroyed by the Guti. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Sargon 2270–2215 BC Rimush 2214–2206 BC Son of Sargon Man-ishtishu 2205–2191 BC Son of Sargon Naram-sin 2190–2154 BC Grandson of Sargon Shar-kali-sharri 2153–2129 BC Son of Naram-sin Irgigi Nanum Imi Ilulu Dudu 2125–2104 BC Shu-Durul 2104–2083 BC City of Akkad falls to the Guti Gutian Kings Further information: Gutian dynasty of Sumer First appearing in the area during the reign of Sargon of Akkad, the Guti became a regional power after the decline of the Akkadian Empire following Shar-kali-sharri. The dynasty ends with the defeat of the last king, Tirigan, by Uruk. Only a handful of the Guti kings are attested to by inscriptions, aside from the Sumerian king list. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Erridupizir 2141–2138 BC Royal inscription at Nippur Imta or Nibia (There is no king for 3 or 5 years) 2138–2135 BC Inkishush 2135–2129 BC First Gutian ruler on the Sumerian king list Sarlagab 2129–2126 BC Shulme 2126–2120 BC Elulmesh or Silulumesh 2120–2114 BC Inimabakesh 2114–2109 BC Igeshaush or Igeaus 2109–2103 BC Yarlagab or Yarlaqaba 2103–2088 BC Ibate 2088–2085 BC Yarlangab or Yarla 2085–2082 BC Kurum 2082–2081 BC Apilkin or Habil-kin or Apil-kin 2081–2078 BC La-erabum 2078–2076 BC Mace head inscription Irarum 2076–2074 BC Ibranum 2074–2073 BC Hablum 2073–2071 BC Puzur-Suen 2071–2064 BC Son of Hablum Yarlaganda 2064–2057 BC Foundation inscription at Umma Si-um or Si-u 2057–2050 BC Foundation inscription at Umma Tirigan 2050–2050 BC Contemporary of Utu-hengal of Uruk Second Dynasty of Lagash Further information: Lagash Following the collapse of the Akkadian Empire after Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad under pressure from the invading Gutians, Lagash gradually regained prominence. As a client state to the Gutian Kings, Lagash was extremely successful, peaking under the rule of Gudea. After the last Gutian king, Tirigan, was defeated, by Utu-hengal, Lagash came under the control of Ur under Ur-Namma. Note that there is some indication that the order of the last two rulers of Lagash should be reversed. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Lugalushumgal ca. 2140 ruled under Gutian kings Puzer-Mama Ur-Utu Ur-Mama Lu-Baba Lugula Kaku or Kakug ended 2093 Ur-Bau or Ur-baba 2093–2080 BC Gudea 2080–2060 BC Son-in-law of Ur-baba Ur-Ningirsu 2060–2055 BC Son of Gudea Pirigme or Ugme 2055–2053 BC Grandson of Gudea Ur-gar 2053–2049 BC Nammahani 2049–2046 BC Grandson of Kaku, defeated by Ur-Namma Fifth Dynasty of Uruk Further information: Uruk Uniting various Sumerian city-states, Utu-hengal frees the region from the Gutians. Note that the Sumerian king list records a preceding 4th Dynasty of Uruk which is as yet unattested. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Utu-hengal 2055–2048 BC Appoints Ur-Namma as governor of Ur Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) Main article: Third Dynasty of Ur In an apparently peaceful transition, Ur came to power after the end of the reign of Utu-hengal of Uruk, with the first king, Ur-Namma, solidifying his power with the defeat of Lagash. By the dynasty's end with the destruction of Ur by Elamites and Shimashki, the dynasty included little more than the area around Ur. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Ur-Namma or Ur-Engur 2047–2030 BC Defeated Nammahani of Lagash; Contemporary of Utu-hengal of Uruk Shulgi 2029–1982 BC Possible lunar/solar eclipse 2005 BC Amar-Suena 1981–1973 BC Son of Shulgi Shu-Suen 1972–1964 BC Ibbi-Suen 1963–1940 BC Son of Shu-Suen Middle Bronze Age The Old Assyrian / Old Babylonian period (20th to 15th centuries) First Dynasty of Isin Further information: Isin After Ishbi-Erra of Isin breaks away from the declining Third Dynasty of Ur under Ibbi-Suen, Isin reaches its peak under Ishme-Dagan. Weakened by attacks from the upstart Babylonians, Isin eventually falls to its rival Larsa under Rim-Sin I. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Ishbi-Erra 1953–1921 BC Contemporary of Ibbi-Suen of Ur III Šu-ilišu 1920–1911 BC Son of Ishbi-Erra Iddin-Dagan 1910–1890 BC Son of Shu-ilishu Ishme-Dagan 1889–1871 BC Son of Iddin-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar 1870–1860 BC Contemporary of Gungunum of Larsa Ur-Ninurta 1859–1832 BC Contemporary of Abisare of Larsa Bur-Suen 1831–1811 BC Son of Ur-Ninurta Lipit-Enlil 1810–1806 BC Son of Bur-Suen Erra-Imittī or Ura-imitti 1805–1799 BC Enlil-bāni 1798–1775 BC Contemporary of Sumu-la-El of Babylon Zambīia 1774–1772 BC Contemporary of Sin-Iqisham of Larsa Iter-piša 1771–1768 BC Ur-du-kuga 1767–1764 BC Suen-magir 1763–1753 BC Damiq-ilishu 1752–1730 BC Son of Suen-magir Kings of Larsa Further information: Larsa The chronology of the Kingdom of Larsa is based mainly on the Larsa King List (Larsa Dynastic List), the Larsa Date Lists, and a number of royal inscriptions and commercial records. The Larsa King List was compiled in Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi, conqueror of Larsa. It is suspected that the list elevated the first several Amorite Isinite governors of Larsa to kingship so as to legitimize the rule of the Amorite Babylonians over Larsa. After a period of Babylonian occupation, Larsa briefly breaks free in a revolt ended by the death of the last king, Rim-Sin II. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Naplanum 1961–1940 BC Contemporary of Ibbi-Suen of Ur III Emisum 1940–1912 BC Samium 1912–1877 BC Zabaia 1877–1868 BC Son of Samium, First royal inscription Gungunum 1868–1841 BC Gained independence from Lipit-Eshtar of Isin Abisare 1841–1830 BC Sumuel 1830–1801 BC Nur-Adad 1801–1785 BC Contemporary of Sumu-la-El of Babylon Sin-Iddinam 1785–1778 BC Son of Nur-Adad Sin-Eribam 1778–1776 BC Sin-Iqisham 1776–1771 BC Contemporary of Zambiya of Isin, Son of Sin-Eribam Silli-Adad 1771–1770 BC Warad-Sin 1770–1758 BC Possible co-regency with Kudur-Mabuk his father Rim-Sin I 1758–1699 BC Contemporary of Irdanene of Uruk, Defeated by Hammurabi of Babylon, Brother of Warad-Sin Hammurabi of Babylon 1699–1686 BC Official Babylonian rule Samsu-iluna of Babylon 1686–1678 BC Official Babylonian rule Rim-Sin II 1678–1674 BC Killed in revolt against Babylon First Babylonian dynasty (Dynasty I) Main article: First Babylonian dynasty Following the fall of the Ur III Dynasty, the resultant power vacuum was contested by Isin and Larsa, with Babylon and Assyria later joining the fray. In the second half of the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon became the preeminent power, a position it largely maintained until the sack by Mursili I in 1531 BC. Note that there are no contemporary accounts of the sack of Babylon. It is inferred from much later documents. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Sumu-abum or Su-abu 1830–1817 BC Contemporary of Ilushuma of Assyria Sumu-la-El 1817–1781 BC Contemporary of Erishum I of Assyria Sabium or Sabum 1781–1767 BC Son of Sumu-la-El Apil-Sin 1767–1749 BC Son of Sabium Sin-muballit 1748–1729 BC Son of Apil-Sin Hammurabi 1728–1686 BC Contemporary of Zimri-Lim of Mari, Siwe-palar-huppak of Elam and Shamshi-Adad I Samsu-iluna 1686–1648 BC Son of Hammurabi Abi-eshuh or Abieshu 1648–1620 BC Son of Samsu-iluna Ammi-ditana 1620–1583 BC Son of Abi-eshuh Ammi-saduqa or Ammisaduqa 1582–1562 BC Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa Samsu-Ditana 1562–1531 BC Sack of Babylon 1st Sealand Dynasty (2nd Dynasty of Babylon) Main article: Sea..
   
6. Title: Wikiwand: Amarna letters
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Amarna_letters;
   Note: The Amarna letters (/əˈmɑːr-nə/; sometimes referred to as the Amarna correspondence or Amarna tablets, and cited with the abbreviation EA, for "El Amarna") are an archive, written on clay tablets, primarily consisting of diplomatic correspondence between the Egyptian administration and its representatives in Canaan and Amurru during the New Kingdom, between c. 1360-1332 BC (see here for dates). The letters were found in Upper Egypt at el-Amarna, the modern name for the ancient Egyptian capital of "Akhetaten," founded by pharaoh Akhenaten (1350s – 1330s BC) during the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. The Amarna letters are unusual in Egyptological research, because they are mostly written in a script known as Akkadian cuneiform, the writing system of ancient Mesopotamia, rather than that of ancient Egypt, and the language used has sometimes been characterised as a mixed language, Canaanite-Akkadian. The written correspondence spans a period of at most thirty years.[citation needed] The known tablets total 382, of which 358 have been published by the Norwegian Assyriologist Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon's in his work, "Die El-Amarna-Tafeln," which came out in two volumes (1907 and 1915) and remains the standard edition to this day. The texts of the remaining 24 complete or fragmentary tablets excavated since Knudtzon have also been made available. The Amarna letters are of great significance for biblical studies as well as Semitic linguistics, since they shed light on the culture and language of the Canaanite peoples in pre-biblical times. The letters, though written in Akkadian, are heavily colored by the mother tongue of their writers, who spoke an early form of Canaanite, the language family which would later evolve into its daughter languages, Hebrew and Phoenician. These "Canaanisms" provide valuable insights into the proto-stage of those languages several centuries prior to their first actual manifestation. The letters These letters, comprising cuneiform tablets written primarily in Akkadian – the regional language of diplomacy for this period – were first discovered around 1887 by local Egyptians who secretly dug most of them from the ruined city of Amarna, and sold them in the antiquities market. They had originally been stored in an ancient building that archaeologists have since called the Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh. Once the location where they were found was determined, the ruins were explored for more. The first archaeologist who successfully recovered more tablets was Flinders Petrie, who in 1891 and 1892 uncovered 21 fragments. Émile Chassinat, then director of the French Institute for Oriental Archaeology in Cairo, acquired two more tablets in 1903. Since Knudtzon's edition, some 24 more tablets, or fragments, have been found, either in Egypt, or identified in the collections of various museums. The initial group of letters recovered by local Egyptians have been scattered among museums in Germany, England, Egypt, France, Russia, and the United States. Either 202 or 203 tablets are at the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin; 99 are at the British Museum in London; 49 or 50 are at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo; 7 at the Louvre in Paris; 3 at the Pushkin Museum in Moscow; and 1 in the collection of the Oriental Institute in Chicago. The archive contains a wealth of information about cultures, kingdoms, events and individuals in a period from which few written sources survive. It includes correspondence from Akhenaten's reign (Akhenaten who was also titled Amenhotep IV), as well as his predecessor Amenhotep III's reign. The tablets consist of over 300 diplomatic letters; the remainder comprise miscellaneous literary and educational materials. These tablets shed much light on Egyptian relations with Babylonia, Assyria, Syria, Canaan, and Alashiya (Cyprus) as well as relations with the Mitanni, and the Hittites. The letters have been important in establishing both the history and the chronology of the period. Letters from the Babylonian king, Kadashman-Enlil I, anchor the timeframe of Akhenaten's reign to the mid-14th century BC. They also contain the first mention of a Near Eastern group known as the Habiru, whose possible connection with the Hebrews — due to the similarity of the words and their geographic location — remains debated. Other rulers involved in the letters include Tushratta of Mitanni, Lib'ayu of Shechem, Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem, and the quarrelsome king, Rib-Hadda, of Byblos, who, in over 58 letters, continuously pleads for Egyptian military help. Specifically, the letters include requests for military help in the north against Hittite invaders, and in the south to fight against the Habiru. Letter summary Amarna Letters are politically arranged in rough counterclockwise fashion: . 001–014 Babylonia . 015–016 Assyria . 017–030 Mitanni . 031–032 Arzawa . 033–040 Alashiya . 041–044 Hatti . 045–380+ Syria/Lebanon/Canaan Amarna Letters from Syria/Lebanon/Canaan are distributed roughly: . 045–067 Syria . 068–227 Lebanon (where 68–140 are from Gubla aka Byblos) , 227–380 Canaan (written mostly in the Canaano-Akkadian language). Amarna letters list Note: Many assignments are tentative; spellings vary widely. This is just a guide. EA# Letter author to recipient EA# 1 Amenhotep III to Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil EA# 2 Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep 3 EA# 3 Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep 3 EA# 4 Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep 3 EA# 5 Amenhotep 3 to Babylonian king KadashmanEnlil EA# 6 Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep 3 EA# 7 Babylonian king Burna-Buriash 2 to Amenhotep IV EA# 8 Babylonian king Burna-Buriash 2 to Amenhotep 4 EA# 9 Babylonian king Burna-Buriash 2 to Amenhotep 4 EA# 10 Babylonian king Burna-Buriash 2 to Amenhotep 4 EA# 11 Babylonian king Burna-Buriash 2 to Amenhotep 4 EA# 12 princess to her lord EA# 13 Babylon EA# 14 Amenhotep 4 to Babylonian king Burna-Buriash 2 EA# 15 Assyrian king Ashur-Uballit I to Amenhotep 4 EA# 16 Assyrian king Ashur-Uballit 1 to Amenhotep 4 EA# 17 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 EA# 18 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 EA# 19 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 EA# 20 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 EA# 21 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 EA# 22 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 EA# 23 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 EA# 24 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 EA# 25 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 EA# 26 Mitanni king Tushratta to widow Tiy EA# 27 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 4 EA# 28 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 4 EA# 29 Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 4 EA# 30 Mitanni king to Palestine kings EA# 31 Amenhotep 3 to Arzawa king Tarhundaraba EA# 32 Arzawa king Tarhundaraba to Amenhotep 3(?) EA# 33 Alashiya king to pharaoh #1 EA# 34 Alashiya king to pharaoh #2 EA# 35 Alashiya king to pharaoh #3 EA# 36 Alashiya king to pharaoh #4 EA# 37 Alashiya king to pharaoh #5 EA# 38 Alashiya king to pharaoh #6 EA# 39 Alashiya king to pharaoh #7 EA# 40 Alashiya minister to Egypt minister EA# 41 Hittite king Suppiluliuma to Huri[a] EA# 42 Hittite king to pharaoh EA# 43 Hittite king to pharaoh EA# 44 Hittite prince Zi[k]ar to pharaoh EA# 45 Ugarit king [M]istu ... to pharaoh EA# 46 Ugarit king ... to king EA# 47 Ugarit king ... to king EA# 48 Ugarit queen ..[h]epa to pharaohs queen EA# 49 Ugarit king Niqm-Adda II to pharaoh EA# 50 woman to her mistress B[i]... EA#051 Nuhasse king Addunirari to pharaoh EA#052 Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep 3 #1 EA# 53 Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep 3 #2 EA#054 Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep 3 #3 EA#055 Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep 3 #4 EA#056 ... to king EA#057 ... EA# 58 EA# 58 [Qat]ihutisupa to king(?) obverse EA# 59 Tunip peoples to pharaoh EA#060 Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to pharaoh #1 EA#061 Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to pharaoh #2 EA#062 Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to Pahanate EA#063 Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to pharaoh #3 EA#064 Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to pharaoh #4 EA#065 Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to pharaoh #5 EA#066 --- to king EA#067 --- to king EA#068 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #1 EA#069 Gubal king Rib-Addi to Egypt official EA#070 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #2 EA#071 Gubal king Rib-Addi to Haia(?) EA#072 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #3 EA#073 Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #1 EA#074 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #4 EA#075 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #5 EA#076 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #6 EA#077 Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #2 EA#078 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #7 EA#079 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #8 EA#080 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #9 EA#081 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #10 EA#082 Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #3 EA#083 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #11 EA#084 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #12 EA#085 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #13 EA#086 Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #4 EA#087 Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #5 EA#088 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #14 EA#089 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #15 EA#090 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #16 EA#091 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #17 EA#092 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #18 EA#093 Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #6 EA#094 Gubla man to pharaoh EA#095 Gubal king Rib-Addi to chief EA#096 chief to Rib-Addi EA#097 Iapah-Addi to Sumu-Hadi EA#098 Iapah-Addi to Ianhamu EA#099 pharaoh to Ammia prince(?) EA#100 Irqata peoples EA#100 Tagi to Lab-Aya EA#101 Gubla man to Egypt official EA#102 Gubal king Rib-Addi to [Ianha]m[u] EA#103 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #19 EA#104 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #20 EA#105 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #21 EA#106 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #22 EA#107 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #23 EA#108 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #24 EA#109 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #25 EA#110 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #26 EA#111 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #27 EA#112 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #28 EA#113 Gubal king Rib-Addi to Egypt official EA#114 Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #29 EA#115 Gubal k..
   
7. Title: Wikiwand: Kassites
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Kassites;
   Note: The Kassites (/ˈkæsaɪts/) were people of the ancient Near East, who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1531 BC and until c. 1155 BC (short chronology). The endonym of the Kassites was probably Galzu, although they have also been referred to by the names Kaššu, Kassi, Kasi or Kashi. They gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of the city in 1595 BC (i.e. 1531 BC per the short chronology), and established a dynasty based first in Babylon and later in Dur-Kurigalzu. The Kassites were members of a small military aristocracy but were efficient rulers and not locally unpopular, and their 500-year reign laid an essential groundwork for the development of subsequent Babylonian culture. The chariot and the horse, which the Kassites worshiped, first came into use in Babylonia at this time. The Kassite language has not been classified. What is known is that their language was not related to either the Indo-European language group, nor to Semitic or other Afro-Asiatic languages, and is most likely to have been a language isolate although some linguists have proposed a link to the Hurro-Urartian languages of Asia Minor. However, the arrival of the Kassites has been connected to the contemporary migrations of Indo-European peoples. Several Kassite leaders and deities bore Indo-European names, and it is possible that they were dominated by an Indo-European elite similar to the Mitanni, who ruled over the Hurro-Urartian-speaking Hurrians of Asia Minor. History Late Bronze Age The original homeland of the Kassites is not well-known, but appears to have been located in the Zagros Mountains, in what is now the Lorestan Province of Iran. However, the Kassites were—like the Elamites, Gutians and Manneans who preceded them—linguistically unrelated to the Iranian-speaking peoples who came to dominate the region a millennium later. They first appeared in the annals of history in the 18th century BC when they attacked Babylonia in the 9th year of the reign of Samsu-iluna (reigned c. 1749–1712 BC), the son of Hammurabi. Samsu-iluna repelled them, as did Abi-Eshuh, but they subsequently gained control of Babylonia c. 1570 BC some 25 years after the fall of Babylon to the Hittites in c. 1595 BC, and went on to conquer the southern part of Mesopotamia, roughly corresponding to ancient Sumer and known as the "Dynasty of the Sealand" by c. 1520 BC. The Hittites had carried off the idol of the god Marduk, but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna. The circumstances of their rise to power are unknown, due to a lack of documentation from this so-called "Dark Age" period of widespread dislocation. No inscription or document in the Kassite language has been preserved, an absence that cannot be purely accidental, suggesting a severe regression of literacy in official circles. Babylon under Kassite rulers, who renamed the city Karanduniash, re-emerged as a political and military power in Mesopotamia. A newly built capital city Dur-Kurigalzu was named in honor of Kurigalzu I (ca. early 14th century BC). Their success was built upon the relative political stability that the Kassite monarchs achieved. They ruled Babylonia practically without interruption for almost four hundred years—the longest rule by any dynasty in Babylonian history. The transformation of southern Mesopotamia into a territorial state, rather than a network of allied or combative city states, made Babylonia an international power, although it was often overshadowed by its northern neighbor, Assyria and by Elam to the east. Kassite kings established trade and diplomacy with Assyria. Puzur-Ashur III of Assyria and Burna-Buriash I signed a treaty agreeing the border between the two states in the mid-16th century BC, Egypt, Elam, and the Hittites, and the Kassite royal house intermarried with their royal families. There were foreign merchants in Babylon and other cities, and Babylonian merchants were active from Egypt (a major source of Nubian gold) to Assyria and Anatolia. Kassite weights and seals, the packet-identifying and measuring tools of commerce, have been found in as far afield as Thebes in Greece, in southern Armenia, and even in the Uluburun shipwreck off the southern coast of today's Turkey. A further treaty between Kurigalzu I and Ashur-bel-nisheshu of Assyria was agreed in the mid-15th century BC. However, Babylonia found itself under attack and domination from Assyria for much of the next few centuries after the accession of Ashur-uballit I in 1365 BC who made Assyria (along with the Hittites and Egyptians) the major power in the Near East. Babylon was sacked by the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I (1365–1330 BC)) in the 1360s after the Kassite king in Babylon who was married to the daughter of Ashur-uballit was murdered. Ashur-uballit promptly marched into Babylonia and avenged his son-in-law, deposing the king and installing Kurigalzu II of the royal Kassite line as king there. His successor Enlil-nirari (1330–1319 BC) also attacked Babylonia and his great grandson Adad-nirari I (1307–1275 BC) annexed Babylonian territory when he became king. Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–1208 BC) not content with merely dominating Babylonia went further, conquering Babylonia, deposing Kashtiliash IV and ruling there for eight years in person from 1235 BC to 1227 BC. The Kassite kings maintained control of their realm through a network of provinces administered by governors. Almost equal with the royal cities of Babylon and Dur-Kurigalzu, the revived city of Nippur was the most important provincial center. Nippur, the formerly great city, which had been virtually abandoned c. 1730 BC, was rebuilt in the Kassite period, with temples meticulously re-built on their old foundations. In fact, under the Kassite government, the governor of Nippur, who took the Sumerian-derived title of Guennakku, ruled as a sort of secondary and lesser king. The prestige of Nippur was enough for a series of 13th-century BC Kassite kings to reassume the title "governor of Nippur" for themselves. Other important centers during the Kassite period were Larsa, Sippar and Susa. After the Kassite dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC, the system of provincial administration continued and the country remained united under the succeeding rule, the Second Dynasty of Isin. Documentation of the Kassite period depends heavily on the scattered and disarticulated tablets from Nippur, where thousands of tablets and fragments have been excavated. They include administrative and legal texts, letters, seal inscriptions, kudurrus (land grants and administrative regulations), private votive inscriptions, and even a literary text (usually identified as a fragment of a historical epic). "Kassite rulers in Babylon were also scrupulous to follow existing forms of expression, and the public and private patterns of behavior "and even went beyond that—as zealous neophytes do, or outsiders, who take up a superior civilization—by favoring an extremely conservative attitude, at least in palace circles." (Oppenheim 1964, p. 62). The Elamites conquered Babylonia in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state. The last Kassite king, Enlil-nadin-ahi, was taken to Susa and imprisoned there, where he also died. Iron Age The Kassites did briefly regain control over Babylonia with Dynasty V (1025–1004 BC); however, they were deposed once more, this time by an Aramean dynasty. Kassites survived as a distinct ethnic group in the mountains of Lorestan (Luristan) long after the Kassite state collapsed. Babylonian records describe how the Assyrian king Sennacherib on his eastern campaign of 702 BC subdued the Kassites in a battle near Hulwan, Iran. Herodotus and other ancient Greek writers sometimes referred to the region around Susa as "Cissia," a variant of the Kassite name. However, it is not clear if Kassites were actually living in that region so late. During the later Achaemenid period, the Kassites, referred to as "Kossaei," lived in the mountains to the east of Media and were one of several "predatory" mountain tribes that regularly extracted "gifts" from the Achaemenid Persians, according to a citation of Nearchus by Strabo (13.3.6). But Kassites again fought on the Persian side in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, in which the Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great, according to Diodorus Siculus (17.59) (who called them "Kossaei") and Curtius Rufus (4.12) (who called them "inhabitants of the Cossaean mountains"). According to Strabo's citation of Nearchus, Alexander later separately attacked the Kassites "in the winter," after which they stopped their tribute-seeking raids. Strabo also wrote that the "Kossaei" contributed 13,000 archers to the army of Elymais in a war against Susa and Babylon. This statement is hard to understand, as Babylon had lost importance under Seleucid rule by the time Elymais emerged around 160 BC. If "Babylon" is understood to mean the Seleucids, then this battle would have occurred sometime between the emergence of Elymais and Strabo's death around 25 AD. If "Elymais" is understood to mean Elam, then the battle probably occurred in the 6th century BC. Note that Susa was the capital of Elam and later of Elymais, so Strabo's statement implies that the Kassites intervened to support a particular group within Elam or Elymais against their own capital, which at that moment was apparently allied with or subject to Babylon or the Seleucids. The latest evidence of Kassite culture is a reference by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy, who described "Kossaei" as living in the Susa region, adjacent to the "Elymeans". This could represent one of many cases where Ptolemy relied on out-of-date sources. It is believed that the name of the Kassites is preserved in the name of the Kashgan River, in Lorestan. Kassite dynasty of Babylon (short chronology) Ruler Reigned Comments Agum II or ..
   
8. Title: Wikiwand: Uruk
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Uruk;
   Note: Uruk (/ˈuːrʊk/; Cuneiform: 𒌷𒀕 or 𒌷𒀔 URUUNUG; Sumerian: "Unug"; Akkadian: "Uruk"; Arabic: وركاء or أوروك‎, "Warkāʼ" or "Auruk"; Aramaic/Hebrew: אֶרֶךְ, "ʼÉreḵ"; Ancient Greek: Ὀρχόη, romanized: "Orkhoē," Ὀρέχ, "Orekh," Ὠρύγεια "Ōrugeia") was an ancient city of Sumer (and later of Babylonia), situated east of the present bed of the Euphrates river, on the dried-up, ancient channel of the Euphrates, some 30 km (19 mi) east of modern Samawah, Al-Muthannā, Iraq. Uruk is the type site for the Uruk period. Uruk played a leading role in the early urbanization of Sumer in the mid-4th millennium BC. At its height c. 2900 BC, Uruk probably had 50,000–80,000 residents living in 6 km2 (2.32 sq mi) of walled area; making it the largest city in the world at the time. The legendary king Gilgamesh, according to the chronology presented in the Sumerian king list, ruled Uruk in the 27th century BC. The city lost its prime importance around 2000 BC, in the context of the struggle of Babylonia against Elam, but it remained inhabited throughout the Seleucid (312–63 BC) and Parthian (227 BC to 224 AD) periods until it was finally abandoned shortly before or after the Islamic conquest of 633–638. William Kennett Loftus visited the site of Uruk in 1849 and led the first excavations from 1850 to 1854; he had identified it as "Erech," known as "the second city of Nimrod." The Arabic name of Babylonia, which eventually became the name of the present-day country, "al-ʿIrāq," is thought to derive from the name "Uruk," via Aramaic ("Erech") and possibly via Middle Persian ("Erāq") transmission. In Sumerian the word "uru" could mean "city, town, village, district." Prominence In myth and literature, Uruk was famous as the capital city of Gilgamesh, hero of the "Epic of Gilgamesh." It also is believed Uruk is the biblical Erech (Genesis 10:10), the second city founded by Nimrod in Shinar. Uruk period Main article: Uruk period In addition to being one of the first cities, Uruk was the main force of urbanization and state formation during the Uruk period, or "Uruk expansion" (4000–3200 BC). This period of 800 years saw a shift from small, agricultural villages to a larger urban center with a full-time bureaucracy, military, and stratified society. Although other settlements coexisted with Uruk, they were generally about 10 hectares while Uruk was significantly larger and more complex. The Uruk period culture exported by Sumerian traders and colonists had an effect on all surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own comparable, competing economies and cultures. Ultimately, Uruk could not maintain long-distance control over colonies such as Tell Brak by military force. Geographic factors Geographic factors underpin Uruk's unprecedented growth. The city was located in the southern part of Mesopotamia, an ancient site of civilization, on the Euphrates river. Through the gradual and eventual domestication of native grains from the Zagros foothills and extensive irrigation techniques, the area supported a vast variety of edible vegetation. This domestication of grain and its proximity to rivers enabled Uruk's growth into the largest Sumerian settlement, in both population and area, with relative ease. Uruk's agricultural surplus and large population base facilitated processes such as trade, specialization of crafts and the evolution of writing; writing may have originated in Uruk around 3300 BC. Evidence from excavations such as extensive pottery and the earliest known tablets of writing support these events. Excavation of Uruk is highly complex because older buildings were recycled into newer ones, thus blurring the layers of different historic periods. The topmost layer most likely originated in the Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BC) and is built on structures from earlier periods dating back to the Ubaid period. History According to the Sumerian king list, Uruk was founded by the king Enmerkar. Though the king-list mentions a king of Eanna before him, the epic "Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta" relates that Enmerkar constructed the "House of Heaven" (Sumerian: "e2-anna"; Cuneiform: 𒂍𒀭, E2.AN) for the goddess Inanna in the Eanna District of Uruk. In the "Epic of Gilgamesh," Gilgamesh builds the city wall around Uruk and is king of the city. Uruk went through several phases of growth, from the Early Uruk period (4000–3500 BC) to the Late Uruk period (3500–3100 BC). The city was formed when two smaller Ubaid settlements merged. The temple complexes at their cores became the Eanna District and the Anu District dedicated to Inanna and Anu, respectively. The Anu District was originally called "Kullaba" (Kulab or Unug-Kulaba) prior to merging with the Eanna District. Kullaba dates to the Eridu period when it was one of the oldest and most important cities of Sumer. There are different interpretations about the purposes of the temples. However, it is generally believed they were a unifying feature of the city. It also seems clear that temples served both an important religious function and state function. The surviving temple archive of the Neo-Babylonian period documents the social function of the temple as a redistribution center. The Eanna District was composed of several buildings with spaces for workshops, and it was walled off from the city. By contrast, the Anu District was built on a terrace with a temple at the top. It is clear Eanna was dedicated to Inanna from the earliest Uruk period throughout the history of the city. The rest of the city was composed of typical courtyard houses, grouped by profession of the occupants, in districts around Eanna and Anu. Uruk was extremely well penetrated by a canal system that has been described as, "Venice in the desert." This canal system flowed throughout the city connecting it with the maritime trade on the ancient Euphrates River as well as the surrounding agricultural belt. The original city of Uruk was situated southwest of the ancient Euphrates River, now dry. Currently, the site of Warka is northeast of the modern Euphrates river. The change in position was caused by a shift in the Euphrates at some point in history, and may have contributed to the decline of Uruk. Archaeological levels of Uruk Archeologists have discovered multiple cities of Uruk built atop each other in chronological order. . Uruk XVIII Eridu period (c 5000 BC); the founding of Uruk . Uruk XVIII-XVI Late Ubaid period (4800–4200 BC) . Uruk XVI-X Early Uruk period (4000–3800 BC) . Uruk IX-VI Middle Uruk period (3800–3400 BC) . Uruk V-IV Late Uruk period (3400–3100 BC); The earliest monumental temples of Eanna District are built . Uruk III Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BC); The 9 km city wall is built . Uruk II . Uruk I Eanna district The Eanna district is historically significant as both writing and monumental public architecture emerged here during Uruk periods VI-IV. The combination of these two developments places Eanna as arguably the first true city and civilization in human history. Eanna during period IVa contains the earliest examples of cuneiform writing and possibly the earliest writing in history. Although some of these cuneiform tablets have been deciphered, difficulty with site excavations has obscured the purpose and sometimes even the structure of many buildings. The first building of Eanna, Stone-Cone Temple (Mosaic Temple), was built in period VI over a preexisting Ubaid temple and is enclosed by a limestone wall with an elaborate system of buttresses. The Stone-Cone Temple, named for the mosaic of colored stone cones driven into the adobe brick façade, may be the earliest water cult in Mesopotamia. It was ritually demolished in Uruk IVb period and its contents interred in the Riemchen Building. In the following period, Uruk V, about 100 m east of the Stone-Cone Temple the Limestone Temple was built on a 2 m high rammed-earth podium over a pre-existing Ubaid temple, which like the Stone-Cone Temple represents a continuation of Ubaid culture. However, the Limestone Temple was unprecedented for its size and use of stone, a clear departure from traditional Ubaid architecture. The stone was quarried from an outcrop at Umayyad about 60 km east of Uruk. It is unclear if the entire temple or just the foundation was built of this limestone. The Limestone temple is probably the first Inanna temple, but it is impossible to know with certainty. Like the Stone-Cone temple the Limestone temple was also covered in cone mosaics. Both of these temples were rectangles with their corners aligned to the cardinal directions, a central hall flanked along the long axis flanked by two smaller halls, and buttressed façades; the prototype of all future Mesopotamian temple architectural typology. Between these two monumental structures a complex of buildings (called A-C, E-K, Riemchen, Cone-Mosaic), courts, and walls was built during Eanna IVb. These buildings were built during a time of great expansion in Uruk as the city grew to 250 hectares and established long distance trade, and are a continuation of architecture from the previous period. The Riemchen Building, named for the 16×16 cm brick shape called "Riemchen" by the Germans, is a memorial with a ritual fire kept burning in the center for the Stone-Cone Temple after it was destroyed. For this reason, Uruk IV period represents a reorientation of belief and culture. The facade of this memorial may have been covered in geometric and figural murals. The Riemchen bricks first used in this temple were used to construct all buildings of Uruk IV period Eanna. The use of colored cones as a façade treatment was greatly developed as well, perhaps used to greatest effect in the Cone-Mosaic Temple. Composed of three parts: Temple N, the Round Pillar Hall, and the Cone-Mosaic Courtyard, this temple was the most monumental structure of Eanna at the time. They were all ritually destroyed and the entire Eanna district was rebuilt in period IVa at an even grander scale...
   
9. Title: Wikiwand: Sumer
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Sumer;
   Note: Sumer (/ˈsuːmər/) is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia (now southern Iraq), during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Ages, and one of the first civilizations in the world, along with Ancient Egypt, Norte Chico, Ancient China and the Indus Valley. Living along the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, Sumerian farmers grew an abundance of grain and other crops, the surplus from which enabled them to form urban settlements. Prehistoric proto-writing dates back before 3000 BC. The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr, and date to between roughly c. 3500 and c. 3000 BC. Name The term "Sumerian" is the common name given to the ancient non-Semitic-speaking inhabitants of Mesopotamia by the East Semitic-speaking Akkadians. The Sumerians referred to themselves as "ùĝ saĝ gíg ga" (cuneiform: "𒌦 𒊕 𒈪 𒂵"), phonetically /uŋ saŋ ɡi ɡa/, or "sang-ngiga," literally meaning "the black-headed people," and to their land as "ki-en-gi(-r)" (cuneiform: "𒆠𒂗𒄀") ('place' + 'lords' + 'noble'), meaning "place of the noble lords." The Akkadians also called the Sumerians "black-headed people," or "tsalmat-qaqqadi," in the Semitic Akkadian language. The Akkadian word "Shumer" may represent the geographical name in dialect, but the phonological development leading to the Akkadian term "šumerû" is uncertain. Hebrew "Shinar," Egyptian "Sngr," and Hittite "Šanhar(a)," all referring to southern Mesopotamia, could be western variants of "Sumer." Origins Most historians have suggested that Sumer was first permanently settled between c. 5500 and 4000 BC by a West Asian people who spoke the Sumerian language (pointing to the names of cities, rivers, basic occupations, etc., as evidence), a non-Semitic and non-Indo-European agglutinative language isolate. In contrast to its Semitic neighbors, it was not an inflected language. Others have suggested that the Sumerians were a North African people who migrated from the Green Sahara into the Middle East and were responsible for the spread of farming in the Middle East. Although not specifically discussing Sumerians, Lazaridis et al. 2016 have suggested a North African origin for the pre-Semitic cultures of the Middle East, particularly Natufians, after testing the genomes of Natufian and Pre-Pottery Neolithic culture-bearers. Alternatively, recent genetic analysis of ancient Mesopotamian skeletal DNA tends to suggest an association of the Sumerians with India, possibly as a result of ancient Indus-Mesopotamia relations: Sumerians, or at least some of them, may have been related to the original Dravidian population of India. These prehistoric people are now called "proto-Euphrateans" or "Ubaidians," and are theorized to have evolved from the Samarra culture of northern Mesopotamia. The Ubaidians, though never mentioned by the Sumerians themselves, are assumed by modern-day scholars to have been the first civilizing force in Sumer. They drained the marshes for agriculture, developed trade, and established industries, including weaving, leatherwork, metalwork, masonry, and pottery. Some scholars contest the idea of a Proto-Euphratean language or one substrate language; they think the Sumerian language may originally have been that of the hunting and fishing peoples who lived in the marshland and the Eastern Arabia littoral region and were part of the Arabian bifacial culture. Reliable historical records begin much later; there are none in Sumer of any kind that have been dated before Enmebaragesi (c. 26th century BC). Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians lived along the coast of Eastern Arabia, today's Persian Gulf region, before it was flooded at the end of the Ice Age. Sumerian civilization took form in the Uruk period (4th millennium BC), continuing into the Jemdet Nasr and Early Dynastic periods. During the 3rd millennium BC, a close cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians, who spoke a language isolate, and Akkadians, which gave rise to widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and "vice versa") is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the 3rd millennium BC as a "Sprachbund." The Sumerians progressively lost control to Semitic states from the northwest. Sumer was conquered by the Semitic-speaking kings of the Akkadian Empire around 2270 BC (short chronology), but Sumerian continued as a sacred language. Native Sumerian rule re-emerged for about a century in the Third Dynasty of Ur at approximately 2100–2000 BC, but the Akkadian language also remained in use for some time. The Sumerian city of Eridu, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, is considered to have been one of the oldest cities, where three separate cultures may have fused: that of peasant Ubaidian farmers, living in mud-brick huts and practicing irrigation; that of mobile nomadic Semitic pastoralists living in black tents and following herds of sheep and goats; and that of fisher folk, living in reed huts in the marshlands, who may have been the ancestors of the Sumerians. City-states in Mesopotamia Further information: Cities of the Ancient Near East and Geography of Mesopotamia In the late 4th millennium BC, Sumer was divided into many independent city-states, which were divided by canals and boundary stones. Each was centered on a temple dedicated to the particular patron god or goddess of the city and ruled over by a priestly governor (ensi) or by a king (lugal) who was intimately tied to the city's religious rites. The five "first" cities, said to have exercised pre-dynastic kingship "before the flood": 1. Eridu ("Tell Abu Shahrain") 2. Bad-tibira (probably "Tell al-Madain") 3. Larsa ("Tell as-Senkereh") 4. Sippar ("Tell Abu Habbah") 5. Shuruppak ("Tell Fara") Other principal cities: 6. Uruk ("Warka") 7. Kish ("Tell Uheimir and Ingharra") 8. Ur ("Tell al-Muqayyar") 9. Nippur ("Afak") 10. Lagash ("Tell al-Hiba") 11. Girsu ("Tello or Tell") 12. Umma ("Tell Jokha") 13. Hamazi 14. Adab ("Tell Bismaya") 15. Mari ("Tell Hariri") 16. Akshak 17. Akkad 18. Isin ("Ishan al-Bahriyat") (location uncertain) (an outlying city in northern Mesopotamia) Minor cities (from south to north): 1. Kuara ("Tell al-Lahm") 2. Zabala ("Tell Ibzeikh") 3. Kisurra ("Tell Abu Hatab") 4. Marad ("Tell Wannat es-Sadum") 5. Dilbat ("Tell ed-Duleim") 6. Borsippa ("Birs Nimrud") 7. Kutha ("Tell Ibrahim") 8. Der ("al-Badra") 9. Eshnunna ("Tell Asmar") 10. Nagar ("Tell Brak") (an outlying city in northern Mesopotamia) Apart from Mari, which lies full 330 kilometers (205 miles) northwest of Agade, but which is credited in the king list as having "exercised kingship" in the Early Dynastic II period, and Nagar, an outpost, these cities are all in the Euphrates-Tigris alluvial plain, south of Baghdad in what are now the Bābil, Diyala, Wāsit, Dhi Qar, Basra, Al-Muthannā and Al-Qādisiyyah governorates of Iraq. History Main article: History of Sumer The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there was a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by invasions by the Amorites. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. . Ubaid period: 6500–4100 BC (Pottery Neolithic to Chalcolithic) . Uruk period: 4100–2900 BC (Late Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age I) . Uruk XIV-V: 4100–3300 BC . Uruk IV period: 3300–3100 BC . Jemdet Nasr period (Uruk III): 3100–2900 BC . Early Dynastic period (Early Bronze Age II–IV) . Early Dynastic I period: 2900–2800 BC . Early Dynastic II period: 2800–2600 BC (Gilgamesh) . Early Dynastic IIIa period: 2600–2500 BC . Early Dynastic IIIb period: c. 2500–2334 BC . Akkadian Empire period: c. 2334–2218 BC (Sargon) . Gutian period: c. 2218–2047 BC (Early Bronze Age IV) . Ur III period: c. 2047–1940 BC Ubaid period Main article: Ubaid period The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery that spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: "nun.ki," "𒉣 𒆠"), c. 6500 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. The rise of the city of Uruk may be reflected in the story of the passing of the gifts of civilization ("me") to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect the transition from Eridu to Uruk. Uruk period Main article: Uruk period The archaeological transition from the Ubaid period to the Uruk period is marked by a gradual shift from painted pottery domestically produced on a slow wheel to a great variety of unpainted pottery mass-produced by specialists on fast wheels. The Uruk period is a continuation and an outgrowth of Ubaid with pottery being the main visible change. By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facil..
   
10. Title: Wikiwand: Seleucid era
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Seleucid_era;
    Note: The Seleucid era or "Anno Graecorum" (literally "year of the Greeks" or "Greek year"), sometimes denoted "AG," was a system of numbering years in use by the Seleucid Empire and other countries among the ancient Hellenistic civilizations. It is sometimes referred to as "the dominion of the Seleucidæ," or the Year of Alexander. The era dates from Seleucus I Nicator's re-conquest of Babylon in 312/11 BC after his exile in Ptolemaic Egypt, considered by Seleucus and his court to mark the founding of the Seleucid Empire. According to Jewish tradition, it was during the sixth year of Alexander the Great's reign (lege: possibly Alexander the Great's infant son, Alexander IV of Macedon) that they began to make use of this counting. The introduction of the new era is mentioned in one of the Babylonian Chronicles, the "Chronicle of the Diadochi." Two different uses were made of the Seleucid years: 1. The natives of the empire used the Babylonian calendar, in which the new year falls on 1 Nisanu (3 April in 311 BC), so in this system year 1 of the Seleucid era corresponds roughly to April 311 BC to March 310 BC. This included the Jews, who call it the "Era of Contracts," Hebrew מניין שטרות, "minyan shtarot"). It is used in the Jewish historical book, now "deuterocanonical," 1 Maccabees, in 6:20, 7:1, 9:3, 10:1, etc. 2. The Macedonian court adopted the Babylonian calendar (substituting the Macedonian month names) but reckoned the new year to be in the autumn (the exact date is unknown). In this system year 1 of the Seleucid era corresponds to the period from autumn 312 BC to summer 311 BC. By the 7th century AD / 10th AG, the west Syrian Christians settled on 1 October-to-30 September. Jews, however, reckon the start of each new Seleucid year with the lunar month Tishri. These differences in the beginning of the year mean that dates may differ by one. Bickerman gives this example: For instance, the restoration of the temple of Jerusalem by Judas Maccabaeus, approximately 15 December 164 BC, fell in the year 148 of the Seleucid Era according to Jewish (and Babylonian) calculation, but in the year 149 for the court. The Seleucid era was used as late as the 6th century AD, for instance in the Zabad trilingual inscription [fr] in Syria, dated the 24th of Gorpiaios, 823 (24 September, 512 AD), and in the writings of John of Ephesus. Syriac chroniclers continued to use it up to Michael the Syrian in the 12th century AD / 15th century AG. It has been found on Nestorian Christian tombstones from Central Asia well into the 14th century AD. The Seleucid era counting, or "era of contracts" ("minyan sheṭarot"), was used by Yemenite Jews in their legal deeds and contracts until modern times, a practice derived from an ancient Jewish teaching in the Talmud, requiring all Diaspora Jews to uphold its practice. For this reason, the Seleucid era counting is mentioned in the Book of Maccabees (I Macc. i. 11) and in the writings of the historian, Josephus. The Seleucid era counting fell into disuse among most Jewish communities, following Rabbi David ben Zimra's cancellation of the practice when he served as Chief Rabbi of Egypt.
    
11. Title: Wikiwand: Kassite deities
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Kassite_deities;
    Note: The Kassites, the ancient Near Eastern people who seized power in Babylonia following the fall of the first Babylonian Dynasty and subsequently went on to rule it for some three hundred and fifty years during the late bronze age, possessed a pantheon of gods but few are known beyond the laconic mention in the theophoric element of a name. The only Kassite deities who had separate and distinct temples anywhere in Babylonia were apparently the patron deities of the royal family, Šuqamuna and Šumaliya. The evidence from the Kassite-Akkadian vocabulary (pictured) discovered by Hormuzd Rassam and the Kassite-Akkadian name list is that the Kassites identified their gods with those of Mesopotamia, if these sources are sufficiently contemporary. Mountain gods were a popular motif in Kassite art, on cylinder seals and, for example, the brickwork façade of the temple of Karaindaš, the "Eanna of Inanna." The generic term for “god” in the Kassite language was mašḫu or bašḫu. Of the three hundred or so known Kassite words, around thirty of them are thought to be the names of deities, some strikingly similar to Indo-European god-names and this has been conjectured to be through contact transmission rather than linguistic affiliation. The language itself has been compared to several, such as Hittite and Elamite but genetically found wanting, possibly with the exception of the Hurrian language. Nine of the god-names appear as components of the Kassite kings' names and there are three in the post-Kassite monarchs, Simbar-Šipak, Kaššu-nādin-aḫi and Širikti-šuqamuna, providing some evidence of continued veneration for them or for the prestige their association provided. List of Kassite deities The evidence available for assembling a list of the pantheon of Kassite gods is meager. Perhaps three bilingual lists exist which provide Akkadian equivalents to Kassite gods, translations of names which include Kassite theophoric elements, or a handful of Kassite words, including god-names, with their Assyrian counterparts but some of these identifications must be considered tentative due to the circumstantial evidence that the elements actually represent deities, rather than, for example, some topographical feature. Deity Symbol Essential Character Babylonian or Other Equivalent Alban Only known as a (possible) theophoric element in the name mBurra-Alban Bugaš Possibly the name of a god, or a general term meaning "god." It is also used as a title without the determinative d. Possibly Sanskrit Bhaga Buriaš, Ubriaš, or Burariaš Lightning bolt? A storm or weather god, the Slavic word buria ("storm"), Lord of Lands. The older Sumerian form Iškur ("the one who strikes Iskra sparks out of rocks"). dAdad, Greek Boreas Duniaš Used in Karduniaš, the Kassite name for Babylonia Possibly the Vedic Danavas and later Celtic Tuatha Dé Danann (Duninowie) Dur(a), Duri, Tura God of the underworld dNêrgal Duzagaš Inscribed on a duckweight in the Middle Euphrates during the late 1st Dynasty of Babylon period. Gidar A war god, also Maruttaš Adar, dNinurta Ḫala, Šala A barley stalk Wife of the god of the Noonday sun, of Adar/Nusku, goddess of healing dGula Ḫarbe Bird with back-turned head Lord of the pantheon, also venerated in Hurrian areas. Bel, dEnlil or dAnu Ḫardaš Possibly the name of a god, from Kara-Ḫardaš Ḫudha An “air-god” dAdad Indaš Only known as a theophoric element in names, e.g. Karaindaš Possibly Sanskrit Indra Kamulla, Akmul Human faced fish dEa Kaššu or Gal-zu Eponymous ancestor god Possibly the Vedic Kashyapa and/or Kassapa Buddha Laguda Maruttaš, Muruttaš, Maraddaš A war god written with determinative d in "Nazi-Maruttaš." Also see Gidar Adar, possibly the Vedic Maruts a plural form, equated with dNinurta. Miriaš, Mirizir 8 pointed star The planet Venus, evening star, earth goddess? Bêlet, Beltis, i.e. dIštar Nanai, or Nanna Female on a throne A huntress,Venus star dIštar Saḫ Winged disc or cross A sun god. Šamaš, possibly Sanskrit Sahi or Savitr Sali Theophoric element in name Sigme, Šikme or Siqme In the names Burra-Ši-ig(k,q)-me and Ardu-Ši-ig-mi. Šiḫu Alternative reading of Ši-ḪU in the name Meli-Šipak One of the names of Marduk Šimalia or Šumalia Bird on high perch "Lady of the bright mountains," or goddess of the snow-peaks, one of two deities associated with the investiture of kings. Šipak, Šipaq, Šipag Crescent moon. A moon God. Šugurra Possibly variant form of Šuqamuna dMarduk Šuḫizabil In the personal name Burra-Šuḫizabil. Šuqamuna, Šugamuna or Šugab Bird on high perch Great god of the Kassites, god of war and of the chase, one of two associated with the investiture of kings “Marduk of the container” Šuriaš An arrow Also a sun god, but this might be the star Sirius dŠamaš, possibly the Vedic Surya Tašši Only known as a (possible) theophoric element in names Turgu Only known as a theophoric element in names, e.g. Kadašman-Turgu Zini Only known as a (possible) theophoric element in names Gods that have sometimes been identified with the Kassites but which have other origins include Nusku, represented by a sauce-bowl lamp, a god of war, or more probably an Assyrian god of fire, synonymous with dNêrgal, Gibil, a fire god, of Sumerian origin, Addu, a form of the name of the god Adad and Tišpak, a local god of Ešnunna represented by the snake-dragon.
    
12. Title: Wikiwand: Mitanni
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Mitanni;
    Note: Mitanni (/mɪˈtæni/; Hittite cuneiform "KUR URUMi-ta-an-ni"; Mittani "Mi-it-ta-ni"), also called Hanigalbat ("Hanigalbat," "Khanigalbat," cuneiform "Ḫa-ni-gal-bat") in Assyrian or Naharin in Egyptian texts, was a Hurrian-speaking state in northern Syria and southeast Anatolia from c. 1500 to 1300 BC. Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of Amorite Babylon and a series of ineffectual Assyrian kings created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia. At the beginning of its history, Mitanni's major rival was Egypt under the Thutmosids. However, with the ascent of the Hittite Empire, Mitanni and Egypt struck an alliance to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination. At the height of its power, during the 14th century BC, Mitanni had outposts centered on its capital, Washukanni, whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on the headwaters of the Khabur River. The Mitanni dynasty ruled over the northern Euphrates-Tigris region between c. 1475 and c. 1275 BC. Eventually, Mitanni succumbed to Hittite and later Assyrian attacks and was reduced to the status of a province of the Middle Assyrian Empire. While the Mitanni kings were Indo-Aryan, they used the language of the local people, which was at that time a non-Indo-European language, Hurrian. Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and the Levant of a distinct pottery type. Geography The Mitanni controlled trade routes down the Khabur to Mari and up the Euphrates from there to Carchemish. For a time they also controlled the Assyrian territories of the upper Tigris and its headwaters at Nineveh, Erbil, Assur and Nuzi. Their allies included Kizuwatna in southeastern Anatolia; Mukish, which stretched between Ugarit and Quatna west of the Orontes to the sea; and the Niya, which controlled the east bank of the Orontes from Alalah down through Aleppo, Ebla and Hama to Qatna and Kadesh. To the east, they had good relations with the Kassites. The land of Mitanni in northern Syria extended from the Taurus mountains to its west and as far east as Nuzi (modern Kirkuk) and the river Tigris in the east. In the south, it extended from Aleppo across ("Nuhasse") to Mari on the Euphrates in the east. Its center was in the Khabur River valley, with two capitals: Taite and Washukanni, called "Taidu" and "Ussukana" respectively in Assyrian sources. The whole area supported agriculture without artificial irrigation and cattle, sheep and goats were raised. It is very similar to Assyria in climate, and was settled by both indigenous Hurrian and Amoritic-speaking ("Amurru") populations. Name The Mitanni kingdom was referred to as the Maryannu, Nahrin or Mitanni by the Egyptians, the Hurri by the Hittites, and the Hanigalbat by the Assyrians. The different names seem to have referred to the same kingdom and were used interchangeably, according to Michael C. Astour. Hittite annals mention a people called "Hurri" ("Ḫu-ur-ri"), located in northeastern Syria. A Hittite fragment, probably from the time of Mursili I, mentions a "King of the Hurri." The Assyro-Akkadian version of the text renders "Hurri" as "Hanigalbat." Tushratta, who styles himself "King of Mitanni" in his Akkadian Amarna letters, refers to his kingdom as Hanigalbat. Egyptian sources call Mitanni "nhrn," which usually is pronounced "Naharin(a)," from the Assyro-Akkadian word for "river," cf. "Aram-Naharaim." The name "Mitanni" is first found in the "memoirs" of the Syrian wars (c. 1480 BC) of the official astronomer and clockmaker Amenemhet, who returned from the "foreign country called 'Me-ta-ni'" at the time of Thutmose I. The expedition to the Naharina announced by Thutmosis I at the beginning of his reign actually may have taken place during the long previous reign of Amenhotep I. Helck believes that this was the expedition mentioned by Amenhotep II. People The ethnicity of the people of Mitanni is difficult to ascertain. A treatise on the training of chariot horses by Kikkuli, a Mitanni writer, contains a number of Indo-Aryan glosses. Kammenhuber [de] suggested that this vocabulary was derived from the still undivided Indo-Iranian language, but Mayrhofer has shown that specifically Indo-Aryan features are present. The names of the Mitanni aristocracy frequently are of Indo-Aryan origin, and their deities also show Indo-Aryan roots (Mitra, Varuna, Indra, Nasatya), though some think that they are more immediately related to the Kassites. The common people's language, the Hurrian language, is neither Indo-European nor Semitic. Hurrian is related to Urartian, the language of Urartu, both belonging to the Hurro-Urartian language family. It had been held that nothing more can be deduced from current evidence. A Hurrian passage in the Amarna letters – usually composed in Akkadian, the "lingua franca" of the day – indicates that the royal family of Mitanni was by then speaking Hurrian as well. Bearers of names in the Hurrian language are attested in wide areas of Syria and the northern Levant that are clearly outside the area of the political entity known to Assyria as "Hanilgalbat." There is no indication that these persons owed allegiance to the political entity of Mitanni; although the German term "Auslandshurriter" ("Hurrian expatriates") has been used by some authors. In the 14th century BC numerous city-states in northern Syria and Canaan were ruled by persons with Hurrian and some Indo-Aryan names. If this can be taken to mean that the population of these states was Hurrian as well, then it is possible that these entities were a part of a larger polity with a shared Hurrian identity. This is often assumed, but without a critical examination of the sources. Differences in dialect and regionally different pantheons ("Hepat/Shawushka," "Sharruma/Tilla," etc.) point to the existence of several groups of Hurrian speakers. History No native sources for the history of Mitanni have been found so far. The account is mainly based on Assyrian, Hittite, and Egyptian sources, as well as inscriptions from nearby places in Syria. Often it is not even possible to establish synchronicity between the rulers of different countries and cities, let alone give uncontested absolute dates. The definition and history of Mitanni is further beset by a lack of differentiation between linguistic, ethnic and political groups. Summary It is believed that the warring Hurrian tribes and city states became united under one dynasty after the collapse of Babylon due to its sacking by Hittite king Mursili I, and the Kassite invasion. The Hittite conquest of Aleppo (Yamhad), the weak middle Assyrian kings who succeeded Puzur-Ashur III, and the internal strife of the Hittites had created a power vacuum in upper Mesopotamia. This led to the formation of the kingdom of Mitanni. King Barattarna of Mitanni expanded the kingdom west to Aleppo and made the Canaanite King Idrimi of Alalakh his vassal. The state of Kizzuwatna in the west also shifted its allegiance to Mitanni, and Assyria in the east had become largely a Mitannian vassal state by the mid-15th century BC. The nation grew stronger during the reign of Shaushtatar, but the Hurrians were keen to keep the Hittites inside the Anatolian highland. Kizzuwatna in the west and Ishuwa in the north were important allies against the hostile Hittites. After a few successful clashes with the Egyptians over the control of Syria, Mitanni sought peace with them, and an alliance was formed. During the reign of Shuttarna, in the early 14th century BC, the relationship was very amicable, and he sent his daughter Gilu-Hepa to Egypt for a marriage with Pharaoh Amenhotep III. Mitanni was now at its peak of power. However, by the reign of Eriba-Adad I (1390–1366 BC) Mitanni influence over Assyria was on the wane. Eriba-Adad I became involved in a dynastic battle between Tushratta and his brother Artatama II and after this his son Shuttarna II, who called himself king of the Hurri while seeking support from the Assyrians. A pro-Hurri/Assyria faction appeared at the royal Mitanni court. Eriba-Adad I had thus loosened Mitanni influence over Assyria, and in turn had now made Assyria an influence over Mitanni affairs. King Ashur-Uballit I (1365–1330 BC) of Assyria attacked Shuttarna and annexed Mitanni territory in the middle of the 14th century BC, making Assyria once more a great power. At the death of Shuttarna, Mitanni was ravaged by a war of succession. Eventually Tushratta, a son of Shuttarna, ascended the throne, but the kingdom had been weakened considerably and both the Hittite and Assyrian threats increased. At the same time, the diplomatic relationship with Egypt went cold, the Egyptians fearing the growing power of the Hittites and Assyrians. The Hittite king Suppiluliuma I invaded the Mitanni vassal states in northern Syria and replaced them with loyal subjects. In the capital Washukanni, a new power struggle broke out. The Hittites and the Assyrians supported different pretenders to the throne. Finally a Hittite army conquered the capital Washukanni and installed Shattiwaza, the son of Tushratta, as their vassal king of Mitanni in the late 14th century BC. The kingdom had by now been reduced to the Khabur Valley. The Assyrians had not given up their claim on Mitanni, and in the 13th century BC, Shalmaneser I annexed the kingdom. Early kingdom As early as Akkadian times, Hurrians are known to have lived east of the river Tigris on the northern rim of Mesopotamia, and in the Khabur Valley. The group which became Mitanni gradually moved south into Mesopotamia before the 17th century BC. Hurrians are mentioned in the private Nuzi texts, in Ugarit, and the Hittite archives in Hattusa (Boğazköy). Cuneiform texts from Mari mention rulers of city-states in upper Mesopotamia with both Amurru (Amorite) and Hurrian names. Rulers with Hurrian names are also attested for Urshum and Hassum, and t..
    
13. Title: Wikiwand: Agum III
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Agum_III;
    Note: Agum III was a Kassite king of Babylon ca. mid-15th century BC. Speculatively, he might figure around the 13th position in the dynastic sequence; however, this part of the "Kingslist A" has a lacuna, shared with the "Assyrian Synchronistic Kinglist." Agum (usually called Agum III), son of Kaštiliyåš, appears to have been one of the successors to Burna-Buriyåš I, because he is mentioned in the "Chronicle of Early Kings" after Ulam-Buriyåš, who was a son of a Burna-Buriyåš. Although this source does not give him a royal title, it is inconsistent in this regard and does say he called up his own army, "ummānšu idkēma." Campaigns Against the Sealand and in Dilmun Little is known about the king, with the only Babylonian reference to him from an expedition he led against "the Sealand," a region synonymous with Sumer, ca. 1465 BC, which is described in the "Chronicle of Early Kings." His invasion followed that of his uncle, Ulam-Buriyåš, described in the preceding lines of the chronicle, who had previously made himself "master of the land," i.e., Sealand. Whether the campaign was against a competing Kassite kingdom, a restive province or a resurgent Sealand dynasty is not disclosed. He reputedly conquered the city of Dur-Enlil which is otherwise unknown and destroyed its temple of Egalgašešna, leaving him in control of all of southern Mesopotamia. The excavation conducted by Béatrice André-Salvini (1995) in Bahrain, ancient Dilmun, yielded around 50 tablets, some of which dated to Agum III, whose 3rd and 4th years are attested in the dates of texts found in the area of Qal’at al-Bahrain, when Kassite rule may have extended to the island. It has been suggested that following on from his successes conquering the Sealand, he crossed over to Bahrain, constructed a new palace and installed a local bureaucracy and by his 3rd and 4th years administrative documents began being dated to his reign. A problem arises with this theory due to the date formula. The later kings Kadašman-Ḫarbe I and Kurigalzu I each have texts dated using the archaic "year name" style and it is not until their successors, Kadašman-Enlil I and Burna-Buriaš II that regnal years count from the accession of a king. Inscriptions 1. ^ "Kingslist A," tablet BM 33332 in the British Museum. 2. ^ "Kinglist A.117," Assur 14616c, in the İstanbul Arkeoloji Műzeleri. 3. ^ "Chronicle of Early Kings" (ABC 20) tablet BM 96152 in the British Museum, copy B, lines 16 through 18.
    
14. Title: Wikiwand: Burna-Buriash II
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Burna-Buriash_II;
    Note: Burna-Buriaš II, rendered in cuneiform as "Bur-na-" or "Bur-ra-Bu-ri-ia-aš" in royal inscriptions and letters, and meaning "servant" or "protégé of the Lord of the lands" in the Kassite language, where Buriaš is a Kassite storm god possibly corresponding to the Greek Boreas, was a king in the Kassite dynasty of Babylon, in a kingdom contemporarily called Karduniaš, ruling ca. 1359–1333 BC, where the Short and Middle chronologies have converged. Recorded as the 19th King to ascend the Kassite throne, he succeeded Kadašman-Enlil I, who was likely his father, and ruled for 27 years. He was a contemporary of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten. The proverb "the time of checking the books is the shepherds' ordeal" was attributed to him in a letter to the later king Esarhaddon from his agent Mar-Issar. Correspondence with Egypt The diplomatic correspondence between Burna-Buriaš and the pharaohs is preserved in nine of the Amarna letters, designated EA (for "El Amarna") 6 to 14. The relationship between Babylon and Egypt during his reign was friendly at the start, and a marriage alliance was in the making. "From the time my ancestors and your ancestors made a mutual declaration of friendship, they sent beautiful greeting-gifts to each other, and refused no request for anything beautiful." Burna-Buriaš was obsessed with being received as an equal and often refers to his counterpart as "brother." They exchanged presents, horses, lapis-lazuli and other precious stones from Burna-Buriaš and ivory, ebony and gold from Akhenaten. But then things began to sour. On EA 10, he complains that the gold sent was underweight. “You have detained my messenger for two years!” he declares in consternation. He reproached the Egyptian for not having sent his condolences when he was ill and, when his daughter's wedding was underway, he complained that only five carriages were sent to convey her to Egypt. The bridal gifts filled 4 columns and 307 lines of cuneiform inventory on tablet EA 13. Not only were matters of state of concern. "What you want from my land, write and it shall be brought, and what I want from your land, I will write, that it may be brought." But even in matters of trade, things went awry and, in EA 8, he complains that Egypt's Canaanite vassals had robbed and murdered his merchants. He demanded vengeance, naming Šum-Adda, the son of Balumme, affiliation unknown, and Šutatna, the son of Šaratum of Akka, as the villainous perpetrators. In his correspondence with the Pharaohs, he did not hesitate to remind them of their obligations, quoting ancient loyalties: "In the time of Kurgalzu, my ancestor, all the Canaanites wrote here to him saying, 'Come to the border of the country so we can revolt and be allied with you.' My ancestor sent this (reply), saying, 'Forget about being allied with me. If you become enemies of the king of Egypt, and are allied with anyone else, will I not then come and plunder you?'… For the sake of your ancestor my ancestor did not listen to them." — Burna-Buriaš, from tablet EA 9, BM 29785, line 19 onward. Posterity has not preserved any Egyptian response, however, Abdi-Heba, the Canaanite Mayor of Jerusalem, then a small hillside town, wrote in EA 287 that Kassite agents had attempted to break into his home and assassinate him. "With regard to the Kassites… Though the house is well fortified, they attempted a very serious crime. They took their tools, and I had to seek shelter by a support for the roof. And so if he (pharaoh) is going to send troops into Jerusalem, let them come with a garrison for regular service…. And please make the Kassites responsible for the evil deed. I was almost killed by the Kassites in my own house. May the king make an inquiry in their regard." — Abdi-Heba, El-Amarna tablet EA 287. One letter preserves the apologetic response from a "mārat šarri," or princess, to her "bé-lí-ia," or lord (Nefertiti to Burna-Buriaš?). The letters present a playful, forthright and at times petulant repartee, but perhaps conceal a cunning interplay between them, to confirm their relative status, cajole the provision of desirable commodities and measure their respective threat, best exemplified by Burna-Buriaš' feigned ignorance of the distance between their countries, a four-month journey by caravan. Here he seems to test Akhenaten to shame him into sending gold or perhaps just to gauge the extent of his potential military reach. International Relations Diplomacy with Babylon's neighbor, Elam, was conducted through royal marriages. A Neo-Babylonian copy of a literary text which takes the form of a letter, now located in the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin, is addressed to the Kassite court by an Elamite King. It details the genealogy of the Elamite royalty of this period, and from it we find that Pahir-Iššan married Kurigalzu I’s sister and Humban-Numena married his daughter and their son, Untash-Napirisha was betrothed to Burna-Buriaš’s daughter. This may have been Napir-asu, whose headless statue (pictured) now resides in the Louvre in Paris. It is likely that Suppiluliuma I, King of the Hittites, married yet another of Burna Buriaš’s daughters, his third and final wife, who thereafter was known under the traditional title Tawananna, and this may have been the cause of his neutrality in the face of the Mitanni succession crisis. He refused asylum to the fleeing Shattiwaza, who received a more favorable response in Hatti, where Suppiluliuma I supported his reinstatement in a diminished vassal state. According to her step son Mursili II, she became quite a troublemaker, scheming and murderous, as in the case of Mursili’s wife, foistering her strange foreign ways on the Hittite court and ultimately being exiled. His testimony is preserved in two prayers in which he condemned her. Kassite influence reached to Bahrain, ancient Dilmun, where two letters found in Nippur were sent by a Kassite official, Ilī-ippašra, in Dilmun to Ililiya, a hypocoristic form of Enlil-kidinni, who was the governor, or "šandabakku," of Nippur during Burna Buriaš’ reign and that of his immediate successors. In the first letter, the hapless Ili-ippašra complains that the anarchic local Aḫlamû tribesmen have stolen his dates and “there is nothing I can do” while in the second letter they “certainly speak words of hostility and plunder to me." Domestic Affairs Building activity increased markedly in the latter half of the fourteenth century with Burna-Buriaš and his successors undertaking restoration work of sacred structures. Inscriptions from three door sockets and bricks, some of which are still in situ, bear witness to his restoration of the Ebabbar of the sun god Šamaš in Larsa. A tablet provides an exhortation to Enlil and a brick refers to work on the great socle of the Ekiur of Ninlil in Nippur. A thirteen line bilingual inscription can now probably be assigned to him. Neo-Babylonian temple inventory from Ur mentions him along with successors as a benefactor. A cylinder inscription of Nabonidus recalls Burna-Buriaš’ earlier work on the temenos at Sippar: "The foundation record of Ebarra which Burna-buriaš, a king of former times, my predecessor, had made, he saw and upon the foundation record of Burna-buriaš, not a finger-breadth too high, not a finger-breadth beyond, the foundation of that Ebarra he laid." — Inscription of Nabonidus, cylinder BM 104738. There are about 87 economic texts, most of which were found at successive excavations in Nippur, providing a date formula based on regnal years, which progress up to year 27. Many of them are personnel rosters dealing with servile laborers, who were evidently working under duress as the terms ZÁḤ, "escapee," and ka-mu, "fettered," are used to classify some of them. Apparently thousands of men were employed in construction and agriculture and women in the textile industry. An oppressive regime developed to constrain their movements and prevent their escape. Other texts include two extispicy reports provide divinations based on examination of animal entrails. Nippur seems to have enjoyed the status of a secondary capital. The presence of the royal retinue replete with scribes would have provided the means for the creation of business records for the local population. Kara-ḫardaš, Nazi-Bugaš and the events at end of his reign Later in his reign the Assyrian king Aššur-uballiṭ I was received at the Egyptian court by Tutankhamen, who had by then ascended the throne. This caused a great deal of dismay from Burna-Buriaš who claimed the Assyrians were his vassals, "Why have they been received in your land? If I am dear to you, do not let them conclude any business. May they return here with empty hands!" on EA 9. Finally released from beneath the yoke of Mitanni hegemony, Assyria emerged as a great power during his reign, threatening the northern border of the kingdom. Perhaps to cement relations, Muballiṭat-Šērūa, daughter of Aššur-uballiṭ, had been married to either Burna-Buriaš or possibly his son, Kara-ḫardaš; the historical sources do not agree. The scenario proposed by Brinkman has come to be considered the orthodox interpretation of these events. A poorly preserved letter in the Pergamon Museum possibly mentions him and a princess or "mārat šarri." Kara-ḫardaš was murdered, shortly after succeeding his father to the throne, during a rebellion by the Kassite army in 1333 BC. This incited Aššur-uballiṭ to invade, depose the usurper installed by the army, one Nazi-Bugaš or Šuzigaš, described as "a Kassite, son of a nobody," and install Kurigalzu II, "the younger," variously rendered as son of Burnaburiaš and son of Kadašman-Ḫarbe, likely a scribal error for Kara-ḫardaš. Note, however, that there are more than a dozen royal inscriptions of Kurigalzu II identifying Burna-Buriaš as his father.
    
15. Title: Wikiwand: List of kings of Babylon
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_kings_of_Babylon;
    Note: The King of Babylon (Akkadian: "šar Bābili"), in some periods called the Governor or Viceroy of Babylon (Akkadian: "šakkanakki Bābili"), the King of Babylonia (Akkadian: "šar māt Bābil") or the King of Karduniash (Akkadian: "šar Karduniaš"), was the ruler of the ancient Mesopotamian city of Babylon, and its kingdom (Babylonia) which existed as an independent kingdom from approximately the 19th century BC to the 6th century BC. Although Babylon tended to control most of southern Mesopotamia during its time as independent kingdom, it experienced two major periods of ascendancy, when Babylon dominated all of Mesopotamia and lands beyond; the Old Babylonian Empire (or "First dynasty," c. 1894–1595 BC) and the Neo-Babylonian Empire (or "Eleventh dynasty," 626–539 BC). Of the eleven ancient dynasties that ruled Babylon from its foundation as an independent realm c. 1894 BC to the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, few were of native Babylonian ancestry. Several dynasties were of Kassite origin and there were also Assyrian, Elamite, Chaldean and Amorite rulers. Despite this, Babylon would often fiercely attempt to assert its independence and it repeatedly clashed against the other major Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian kingdom of its time, Assyria. The period when the Assyrians ruled as kings of Babylon (the Neo-Assyrian Empire or "Tenth dynasty," 729–626 BC) saw repeated rebellions in Babylon, eventually culminating in a successful return to independence. After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the title of King of Babylon continued to be used by monarchs of the successive empires which ruled Mesopotamia and the citizens of Babylon itself continued to apply it to whoever happened to rule their homeland at the time. Revolts aimed at independence continued unsuccessfully for centuries, with Babylon revolting as late as 336 BC, more than two centuries after it had native monarchs. The last recorded rulers to be accorded the title by the Babylonians were Parthian kings in the 1st century BC, after which the Akkadian language and Babylonian culture diminished and eventually disappeared. Babylonian King List The Babylonian King List is a very specific ancient list of supposed Babylonian kings recorded in several ancient locations, and related to its predecessor, the Sumerian King List. As in the latter, contemporaneous dynasties are misleadingly listed as successive without comment. There are three versions, which are known as "King List A" (containing all the kings from the First Dynasty of Babylon to the Neo-Assyrian king Kandalanu), "King List B" (containing only the two first dynasties), and "King List C" (containing the first seven kings of the Second Dynasty of Isin). A fourth version was written in Greek by Berossus. The "Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Age" is a continuation that mentions all the Seleucid kings from Alexander the Great to Demetrius II Nicator. List of kings First dynasty (1894–1595 BC) Main article: First Babylonian dynasty Also called the "Amorite dynasty." The dates used follow the "middle chronology" (reign of Hammurabi 1792–1750 BC), the chronology most commonly encountered in literature, including many current textbooks on the archaeology and history of the ancient Near East. No. Image King Reign Succession Notes Ref 1 Sumu-abum Šumu-abum c. 1894–1881 BC (13 years) Liberated Babylon from the control of Kazallu The first king of Babylon, Sumu-abum freed a small region centered on Babylon, previously under the control of the city state Kazallu. He did not title himself as King of Babylon (and neither did his first three successors), suggesting that the city wasn't very important at the time. 2 Sumu-la-El Šumu-la-El c. 1881–1845 BC (36 years) Unknown Sumu-la-El's year names reference the construction of a great city wall in Babylon. 3 Sabium Sabūm c. 1845–1831 BC (14 years) Unknown Sabium's year names reference wars with Larsa and building projects in various cities in the region surrounding Babylon. 4 Apil-Sin Apil-Sîn c. 1831–1813 BC (18 years) Unknown Apil-Sin's year names reference several building projects in Babylon, including temples and a new city wall. 5 Sin-Muballit Sîn-Muballit c. 1813–1792 BC (21 years) Son of Apil-Sin The first ruler to actually title himself King of Babylon, began expanding the territory of his previously minor empire. 6 Hammurabi Ḫammu-rāpi c. 1792–1750 BC (42 years) Son of Sin-Muballit Hammurabi massively expanded Babylon's territory, founding the Old Babylonian Empire and bringing most of Mesopotamia under his control. He is also famous for the Code of Hammurabi, one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world. 7 Samsu-iluna Šamšu-iluna c. 1750–1712 BC (38 years) Son of Hammurabi Samsu-iluna campaigned victoriously against several of Babylon's rebellious vassals in the wake of Hammurabi's death and though he was unable to keep the entirety of his father's empire together, he successfully retained control of the empire's heartlands in southern Mesopotamia. 8 Abi-Eshuh Abī-Ešuḫ c. 1712–1684 BC (28 years) Son of Samsu-iluna Babylonia experienced severe Elamite raids during Abu-Eshuh's reign. 9 Ammi-Ditana Ammi-ditāna c. 1684–1647 BC (47 years) Son of Abi-Eshuh Largely peaceful reign; Ammi-Ditana was primarily engaged in building projects such as enriching and enlarging the temples. 10 Ammi-Saduqa Ammi-Saduqa c. 1647–1626 BC (21 years) Unknown Largely peaceful reign; Ammi-Saduqa was primarily engaged in building projects such as enriching and enlarging the temples. 11 Samsu-Ditana Šamšu-ditāna c. 1626–1595 BC (31 years) Great-great-grandson of Hammurabi The Old Babylonian Empire came to a sudden end during Samsu-Ditana's reign as the Hittites, for reasons unknown, sacked and destroyed the city. Babylon was sacked and destroyed by the Hittites in c. 1595 BC. The city and its kingdom was not firmly re-established until c. 1530 BC, by the Kassite king Agum II. Second dynasty (1732–1460 BC) Main article: Sealand Dynasty Also called the "Sealand dynasty." These rulers might only have ruled Babylonia itself for the briefest of periods, being based in formerly Sumerian regions south of it. Nevertheless, it is often traditionally numbered the Second Dynasty of Babylon, and so it is listed here. Little is known of these rulers. They were counted as kings of Babylon in later king lists, succeeding the Amorite dynasty despite overlapping reigns. No. Image King Reign Succession Notes Ref 12 Ilum-ma-ili Ilum-ma-ilī c. 1732 BC (60 years) Unknown 13 Itti-ili-nibi Itti-ili-nībī (56 years) Unknown 14 Damqi-ilishu Damqi-ilišu (36 years) Unknown 15 Ishkibal Iškibal (15 years) Unknown 16 Shushushi Šušši (24 years) Brother of Ishkibal 17 Gulkishar Gulkišar (55 years) Unknown 18 mDIŠ+U-EN mDIŠ-U-EN Unknown Unknown 19 Peshgaldaramesh Pešgaldarameš (50 years) Son of Gulkishar 20 Ayadaragalama Ayadaragalama (28 years) Son of Peshgaldaramesh 21 Akurduana Akurduana (26 years) Unknown 22 Melamkurkurra Melamkurkurra (7 years) Unknown 23 Ea-gamil Ea-gamil c. 1460 BC (9 years) Unknown Third dynasty (1530–1155 BC) Main article: Kassites Also called the "Kassite dynasty." No. Image King Reign Succession Notes Ref 32 Agum II Kakrime Agum-Kakrime c. 1530 BC Re-established Babylon Established the long-lived Kassite dynasty as the rulers of Babylon. Portrays himself as the legitimate ruler and caring “shepherd” of both the Kassites and the Akkadians. 33 Burnaburiash I Burna-Buriaš c. 1515 BC Son of Agum II It is possible that Burnaburiash I, and not Agum II, was the actual first Kassite ruler to hold Babylon. Engaged in diplomacy with the Assyrian king Puzur-Ashur III. 34 Kashtiliash III Kaštiliašu c. 1500 BC Son of Burnaburiash I Only known from the Assyrian Synchronistic King List. 35 Ulamburiash Ulam-Buriaš c. 1480 BC Son of Burnaburiash I Conquered the Sealand Dynasty, establishing the Kassites as rulers of all of southern Mesopotamia. 36 Agum III Agum c. 1470 BC Son of Kashtiliash III The only Babylonian reference to Agum III is from an expedition he led against "the Sealand." 37 Karaindash Karaindaš c. 1410 BC Unknown One of the Kassite dynasty's more prominent rulers, Karaindash, Karaindash refurbished a temple at Uruk and engaged in diplomacy with Assyria and Egypt. 38 Kadashman-harbe I Kadašman-Ḫarbe c. 1400 BC Unknown Campaigned against the against the Sutû and possibly against Elam. 39 Kurigalzu I Kuri-Galzu c. 1375 BC Son of Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I was responsible for one of the most extensive and widespread building programs for which evidence has survived in Babylonia. 40 Kadashman-Enlil I Kadašman-Enlil c. 1374–1360 BC (14 years) Son of Kurigalzu I Contemporary of Amenhotep III in Egypt, who he corresponded with. 41 Burnaburiash II Burna-Buriaš c. 1359–1333 BC (26 years) Son of Kadashman-Enlil I Contemporary of Akhenaten in Egypt, who he famously corresponded with in the Amarna letters. 42 Kara-hardash Kara-ḫardaš c. 1333 BC Son of Burnaburiash Next to nothing is known of Kara-hardash's brief reign. 43 Nazi-Bugash Nazi-Bugaš or Šuzigaš c. 1333 BC Overthrew Kara-hardash, unrelated to previous kings Next to nothing is known of Nazi-Bugash's brief reign. 44 Kurigalzu II the Younger Kuri-Galzu c. 1332–1308 BC (24 years) Son of Burnaburiash II, appointed king by the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I Because he shares his name with a predecessor who reigned just forty years prior, it is difficult to distinguish documents from their reigns since the Babylonians themselves did not use regnal numbers. 45 Nazi-Maruttash Nazi-Maruttaš c. 1307–1282 BC (25 years) Son of Kurigalzu II Warred against the Assyrians and the Elamites. 46 Kadashman-Turgu Kadašman-Turgu c. 1281–1264 BC (17 years) Son of Nazi-Maruttash Contemporary of the Hittite king Ḫattušili III, with whom he concluded a formal treaty of friendship and mutual assist The contemporary name of this ..
    
16. Title: Wikiwand: Thutmose III
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Thutmose_III;
    Note: Thutmose III (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis III, Thothmes in older history works, and meaning "Thoth is born") was the sixth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Officially, Thutmose III ruled Egypt for almost 54 years and his reign is usually dated from 24 April 1479 BC to 11 March 1425 BC, from the age of two and until his death at age fifty-six; however, during the first 22 years of his reign, he was coregent with his stepmother and aunt, Hatshepsut, who was named the pharaoh. While he was shown first on surviving monuments, both were assigned the usual royal names and insignia and neither is given any obvious seniority over the other. Thutmose served as the head of Hatshepsut's armies.[dubious – discuss] During the final two years of his reign, he appointed his son and successor, Amenhotep II, as his junior co-regent. His firstborn son and heir to the throne, Amenemhat, predeceased Thutmose III. Becoming the sole ruling pharaoh of the kingdom after the deaths of Thutmose II and Hatshepsut, he created the largest empire Egypt had ever seen; no fewer than 17 campaigns were conducted and he conquered lands from the Niya Kingdom in northern Syria to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile in Nubia. When Thutmose III died, he was buried in the Valley of the Kings, as were the rest of the kings from this period in Egypt. Family A fragment of a wall block. The hieroglyphs Son of Ra were inscribed over the cartouche of the birth-name of Thutmos III. 18th Dynasty. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London A fragment of a wall block. The hieroglyphs Son of Ra were inscribed over the cartouche of the birth-name of Thutmos III. 18th Dynasty. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London Thutmose III was the son of Thutmose II by a secondary wife, Iset. His father's great royal wife was Queen Hatshepsut. Her daughter, Neferure, was Thutmose's half-sister. When Thutmose II died, Thutmose III was too young to rule. Hatshepsut became his regent, soon his co-regent, and shortly thereafter declared herself to be the pharaoh while never denying kingship to Thutmose III. Thutmosis III had little power over the empire while Hatshepsut exercised the formal titulary of kingship. Her rule was quite prosperous and marked by great advancements. When Thutmose III reached a suitable age and demonstrated the capability, she appointed him to head her armies. Thutmose III had several wives: Satiah: She may have been the mother of his firstborn son, Amenemhat.[5] An alternative theory is that the boy was the son of Neferure. Amenemhat predeceased his father. Merytre-Hatshepsut. Thutmose's successor, the crown prince and future king Amenhotep II, was the son of Merytre-Hatshepsut. Additional children include Menkheperre and daughters named Nebetiunet, Meryetamun (C), Meryetamun (D) and Iset. Merytre-Hatshepsut was the daughter of the divine adoratrice Huy. Nebtu: she is depicted on a pillar in Thutmose III's tomb. Menwi, Merti, Menhet, three foreign wives. Neferure: Thutmose III may have married his half-sister, but there is no conclusive evidence for this marriage. It has been suggested that Neferure, instead of Satiah, may have been the mother of Amenemhat. Dates and length of reign Thutmose III reigned from 1479 BC to 1425 BC according to the Low Chronology of Ancient Egypt. This has been the conventional Egyptian chronology in academic circles since the 1960s, though in some circles the older dates 1504 BC to 1450 BC are preferred from the High Chronology of Egypt. These dates, just as all the dates of the Eighteenth Dynasty, are open to dispute because of uncertainty about the circumstances surrounding the recording of a Heliacal Rise of Sothis in the reign of Amenhotep I. A papyrus from Amenhotep I's reign records this astronomical observation which theoretically could be used to perfectly correlate the Egyptian chronology with the modern calendar; however, to do this the latitude where the observation was taken must also be known. This document has no note of the place of observation, but it can safely be assumed that it was taken in either a Delta city, such as Memphis or Heliopolis, or in Thebes. These two latitudes give dates 20 years apart, the High and Low chronologies, respectively. The length of Thutmose III's reign is known to the day thanks to information found in the tomb of the military commander Amenemheb-Mahu.[9] Amenemheb-Mahu records Thutmose III's death to his master's 54th regnal year, on the 30th day of the third month of Peret. The day of Thutmose III's accession is known to be I Shemu day four, and astronomical observations can be used to establish the exact dates of the beginning and end of the king's reign (assuming the low chronology) from 24 April 1479 BC to 11 March 1425 BC respectively. Thutmose's military campaigns Further information: Djehuty (general) and The Taking of Joppa Widely considered a military genius by historians, Thutmose III conducted at least 15 campaigns in 20 years. He was an active expansionist ruler, sometimes called Egypt's greatest conqueror or "the Napoleon of Egypt." He is recorded to have captured 350 cities during his rule and conquered much of the Near East from the Euphrates to Nubia during seventeen known military campaigns. He was the first pharaoh after Thutmose I to cross the Euphrates, doing so during his campaign against Mitanni. His campaign records were transcribed onto the walls of the temple of Amun at Karnak and are now transcribed into Urkunden IV. He is consistently regarded as one of the greatest of Egypt's warrior pharaohs who transformed Egypt into an international superpower by creating an empire that stretched from the Asian regions of southern Syria and Canaan to the east, to Nubia to the south. Whether the Egyptian empire covered even more areas is even less certain. The older Egyptologists, most recently Ed. Meyer, believed that Thutmosis had also subjected the islands of the Aegean Sea. This can no longer be upheld today. A submission of Mesopotamia is unthinkable; and whether the tributes of Alashia (Cyprus) were more than occasional gifts remains questionable. In most of his campaigns, his enemies were defeated town by town until being beaten into submission. The preferred tactic was to subdue a much weaker city or state one at a time resulting in surrender of each fraction until complete domination was achieved. Much is known about Thutmosis "the warrior" not only because of his military achievements, but also because of his royal scribe and army commander, Thanuny, who wrote about his conquests and reign. Thutmose III was able to conquer such a large number of lands because of the revolution and improvement in military weapons. When the Hyksos invaded and took over Egypt with more advanced weapons, such as horse-drawn chariots, the people of Egypt learned to use these weapons. Thutmose III encountered little resistance from neighbouring kingdoms, allowing him to expand his realm of influence easily. His army also carried boats on dry land. These campaigns are inscribed on the inner wall of the great chamber housing the "holy of holies" at the Karnak Temple of Amun. These inscriptions give the most detailed and accurate account of any Egyptian king. First Campaign When Hatshepsut died on the 10th day of the sixth month of Thutmose III's 21st year, according to information from a single stela from Armant, the king of Kadesh advanced his army to Megiddo. Thutmose III mustered his own army and departed Egypt, passing through the border fortress of Tjaru (Sile) on the 25th day of the eighth month. Thutmose marched his troops through the coastal plain as far as Jamnia, then inland to Yehem, a small city near Megiddo, which he reached in the middle of the ninth month of the same year. The ensuing Battle of Megiddo probably was the largest battle of Thutmose's 17 campaigns. A ridge of mountains jutting inland from Mount Carmel stood between Thutmose and Megiddo and he had three potential routes to take. The northern route and the southern route, both of which went around the mountain, were judged by his council of war to be the safest, but Thutmose, in an act of great bravery (or so he boasts, but such self-praise is normal in Egyptian texts), accused the council of cowardice and took a dangerous route through the Aruna mountain pass, which he alleged was only wide enough for the army to pass "horse after horse and man after man." Despite the laudatory nature of Thutmose's annals, such a pass does indeed exist, although not as narrow as Thutmose indicates, and taking it was a brilliant strategic move since when his army emerged from the pass they were situated on the plain of Esdraelon, directly between the rear of the Canaanite forces and Megiddo itself. For some reason, the Canaanite forces did not attack him as his army emerged, and his army routed them decisively. The size of the two forces is difficult to determine, but if, as Redford suggests, the amount of time it took to move the army through the pass may be used to determine the size of the Egyptian force, and if the number of sheep and goats captured may be used to determine the size of the Canaanite force, then both armies were around 10,000 men. Most scholars believe that the Egyptian army was more numerous. According to Thutmose III's Hall of Annals in the Temple of Amun at Karnak, the battle occurred on "Year 23, I Shemu [day] 21, the exact day of the feast of the new moon," a lunar date. This date corresponds to 9 May 1457 BC based on Thutmose III's accession in 1479 BC. After victory in battle, his troops stopped to plunder the enemy and the enemy was able to escape into Megiddo. Thutmose was forced to besiege the city, but he finally succeeded in conquering it after a siege of seven or eight months (see Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC)). This campaign drastically changed the political situation in the ancient Near East. By takin..
    
17. Title: Wikiwand: Kassite language
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Kassite_language;
    Note: Kassite (also Cassite) was a language spoken by the Kassites in the Zagros Mountains of Iran and southern Mesopotamia from approximately the 18th to the 4th century BC. From the 16th to 12th centuries BC, kings of Kassite origin ruled in Babylon until they were overthrown by the Elamites. Vocabulary Based on the patchy distribution of extant cuneiform texts, the Semitic Akkadian language of the native Babylonians was mostly used for economic transactions during the Kassite period, with Sumerian used for monumental inscriptions. Traces of the Kassite language are few: . a Kassite-Babylonian vocabulary with 48 entries, listing bilingual equivalents of god names, common nouns, verbs, and adjective(s), such as "dakaš," "star," "hašmar." "falcon," "iašu," "country," "janzi," "king," "mašḫu," "deity," "miriaš," "nether world," "simbar," "young," and "šimdi," "to give"; . the translations of 19 Kassite personal names on the fourth column of a neo-Assyrian era name list, which occasionally contradicts information given in the Kassite-Babylonian vocabulary); . scattered references in Akkadian Lexical lists to Kassite equivalents of divine names, plants, etc, for example the plant names included in the 4-tablet Babylonian Pharmacopoeia, uru.an.na = "maštakal," such as "ḫašimbur," kuruš, "pirizaḫ" and "šagabigalzu," and terms in the 8-tablet synonym list Malku = "šarru," such as "allak," "rim" (of a wheel), and "ḫameru," "foot"; . many proper names in a variety of Akkadian language documents, principally from Babylonia (especially in the period 1360–850 BC), from Nuzi and from Iran; giving names of deities, people, places and equids; . technical terms relating to animal husbandry, including marks and color designations of horses and asses, found in Akkadian documents, such as those found on a list of Kassite horse names, "sambiḫaruk," meaning unknown, and "alzibadar," "ḫulalam," "lagaštakkaš," "pirmaḫ," "šimriš," and "timiraš," color and marking designations of equids; iškamdi, "bit" for a horse; "akkandaš," "spoke" of a wheel; "kamūsaš" and "šaḫumaš" for bronze parts of a chariot, in contemporary texts; . scattered Kassite words, such as the title "bugaš"; "dardaraḫ," "small metal ornament"; and "baziḫarzi," a leather object, in an Akkadian context. A lack of Kassite texts makes the reconstruction of Kassite grammar impossible at present. Genetic relations of the Kassite language are unclear, although it is generally agreed that it was not Semitic; a relation with Elamite is doubtful. Relationship with or membership in the Hurro-Urartian family has been suggested, based on a number of words. It is not clear whether Kassite would be a distinct language in the Hurro-Urartian phylum, or simply a Southern dialect of Hurrian. If indeed the latter rather than the former, this could surmise that Kassites were merely a tribe of Khurrites that expanded from the north onto the south and settled in Mesopotamia. If Kassite is the former than the latter, this suggests that Hurro-Urartian was an even larger language group and more significant to the region than historical experts have observed and was perhaps spoken by far more many people than previously thought. Morphemes are not known; the words "buri" (ruler) and "burna" (protected) probably have the same root.
    
18. Title: Wikiwand: Socle (architecture)
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Socle_(architecture);
    Note: In architecture, a socle is a short plinth used to support a pedestal, sculpture or column. In English the term tends to be most used for the bases for rather small sculptures, with plinth or pedestal preferred for larger examples. This is not the case in French. In the field of archaeology this term refers to a wall base, frequently of stone, that supports the upper part of the wall, which is made of a different material - frequently mud brick. This was a typical building practice in ancient Greece, resulting in the frequent preservation of the plans of ancient buildings only in their stone-built lower walls, as at the city of Olynthos.
    
19. Title: Wikiwand: Karaindash
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Karaindash;
    Note: Karaindaš was one of the more prominent rulers of the Kassite dynasty and reigned towards the end of the 15th century, BC. An inscription on a tablet detailing building work calls him "Mighty King, King of Babylonia, King of Sumer and Akkad, King of the Kassites, King of Karduniaš," inscribed ka-ru-du-ni-ia-aš, probably the Kassite language designation for their kingdom and the earliest extant attestation of this name. Eanna of Inanna Karaindaš’ own eleven-line Sumerian inscriptions adorn bricks from the Temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna, in Uruk, where he commissioned the spectacular façade pictured. It is 205 cm high and would originally have been constructed from around five hundred pre-formed baked bricks, which were set in recessed socles, depicting both male and female deities holding water jugs. The bearded males wear horned flat caps and double streams of water flow symmetrically to frame the niches. Apart from the simple dedication, there are no significant texts adorning the façades. The temple to Inanna originally was located in a courtyard of the Eanna, or "House of Heaven," precinct of Uruk and stood until the Seleucid era. It was a rectangular building with a long cella and ante-cella surrounded by corridors and the elaborately decorated external wall with corner bulwarks. The inner sanctuary had the cult image at the end, instead of the usual siting in the middle of a long wall. It was excavated during the 1928/29 season by a team led by Director Julius Jordan under the auspices of the Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft and Deutsche Not-Gemeinschaft. A section of the outer wall has been reassembled and moved to the Vorderasiatisches wing of the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. Parts of the façade were in the Iraq Museum in Baghdad, but were stolen during the looting of the museum after the American occupation of Baghdad during the second Gulf War and have since disappeared. Diplomatic Relations He concluded a boundary treaty ("riksu") with Aššur-bêl-nišešu of Assyria (1407-1399; short chronology), "together with an oath ('māmītu'): according to the Synchronistic Chronicle. According to Sassmannshausen, it is "very" likely that Karaindaš was the Babylonian king who sent precious gifts, including lapis lazuli, to pharaoh Thutmosis III during his 8th campaign, the attack on the Mitanni, according to the annals of Thutmosis III. This was conducted in the 33rd of his reign or around 1447 BC according to the Low Chronology of Ancient Egypt, suggesting Karaindaš had a very long reign if this chronology coincides with that of the short chronology used for the Near East, but there are chronological difficulties trying to correlate Tuthmosis and Karaindaš. Burna-Buriash II, in his Amarna correspondence with Pharaoh Akhenaten, in the tablet designated EA 10, describes him as the first to enter into friendly relations with Egypt, "Since the time of Karaindaš, since messengers of your ancestors have come regularly to my ancestors, up to the present they (the ancestors of the two lands) have been good friends." "The Annals of Tuthmosis," inscribed on the inside walls of the corridor that surrounds the granite holy of holies of the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak, record the tribute of Babylon, and include a lapis lazuli ram’s head among the inventory. Other sources A brown agate cylinder seal (pictured), which is in the University Museum in Philadelphia, is inscribed "Oh [Shuqamuna], lord who advances in brilliance by your fullness … your light is indeed favorable: Izkur-Marduk, son of Karaindaš, who prays to you and reveres you." Shuqamuna was a Kassite male god symbolized by a bird on a perch often accompanied by his consort, Shumaliya, associated with the investiture of kings. Izkur-Marduk’s name is wholly Babylonian and translates as "he has invoked Marduk." His renown apparently was so great, that Shutruk-Nahhunte who would go on to ransack Babylon around 250 years later, boasted "I destroyed Karaindaš," i.e., Babylonia. Inscriptions 1. ^ Tablet A 3519, in the collection of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, CDLI, a late Babylonian copy of a monumental inscription. 2. ^ For example BM 90287, 11-line brick inscription in the British Museum, CDLI. 3. ^ "Synchronistic Chronicle" (ABC 21), tablet A, K4401a, lines 1 through 4. 4. ^ El Amarna tablet EA 10 (BM 029786, in the British Museum), CDLI, ORACC Transliteration lines 8 to 10. 5. ^ CBS 1108 brown agate seal bearing 7 line Sumerian inscription, University Museum, Philadelphia.
    
20. Title: Wikiwand: Sumerian language
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Sumerian_language;
    Note: Sumerian (𒅴𒂠, "EME.G̃IR15," "native tongue") is the language of ancient Sumer and a language isolate that was spoken in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) and in Syria. During the 3rd millennium BC, an intimate cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Semitic-speaking Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian and the East Semitic language Akkadian on each other is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a substantial scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium BC as a "Sprachbund." Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language around 2000 BC (the exact dating being subject to debate), but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian states such as Assyria and Babylonia until the 1st century AD. Thereafter it was likely forgotten until the 19th century, when Assyriologists began deciphering the cuneiform inscriptions and excavated tablets left by these speakers. Stages The history of written Sumerian can be divided into several periods: . Archaic Sumerian – 31st–26th century BC . Old or Classical Sumerian – 26th–23rd century BC . Neo-Sumerian – 23rd–21st century BC . Late Sumerian – 20th–18th century BC . Post-Sumerian – after 1700 BC Archaic Sumerian is the earliest stage of inscriptions with linguistic content, beginning with the Jemdet Nasr (Uruk III) period from about the 31st to 30th centuries BC. It succeeds the proto-literate period, which spans roughly the 35th to 30th centuries. Some versions of the chronology may omit the Late Sumerian phase and regard all texts written after 2000 BC as Post-Sumerian. The term "Post-Sumerian" is meant to refer to the time when the language was already extinct and preserved by Babylonians and Assyrians only as a liturgical and classical language for religious, artistic and scholarly purposes. The extinction has traditionally been dated approximately to the end of the Third Dynasty of Ur, the last predominantly Sumerian state in Mesopotamia, about 2000 BC. However, that date is very approximate, as many scholars have contended that Sumerian was already dead or dying as early as around 2100 BC, by the beginning of the Ur III period, and others believe that Sumerian persisted, as a spoken language, in a small part of Southern Mesopotamia (Nippur and its surroundings) until as late as 1700 BC. Whatever the status of spoken Sumerian between 2000 and 1700 BC, it is from then that a particularly large quantity of literary texts and bilingual Sumerian-Akkadian lexical lists survive, especially from the scribal school of Nippur. They and the particularly-intensive official and literary use of the language in Akkadian-speaking states during the same time call for a distinction between the Late Sumerian and the Post-Sumerian periods. Dialects The standard variety of Sumerian was "eme-g̃ir." A notable variety or sociolect was "eme-sal" (𒅴𒊩 EME.SAL), possibly to be interpreted as "fine tongue" or "high-pitched voice" (Rubio (2007) p. 1369). Other terms for dialects or registers were "eme-galam," "high tongue," eme-si-sa, "straight tongue," eme-te-na, "oblique[?] tongue," etc. "Eme-sal" is used exclusively by female characters in some literary texts (that may be compared to the female languages or language varieties that exist or have existed in some cultures, such as among the Chukchis and the Garifuna). In addition, it is dominant in certain genres of cult songs. The special features of "eme-sal" are mostly phonological (for example, "m" is often used instead of "g̃" (i.e. [ŋ]) as in "me" as opposed to the "g̃e26," "I"), but words different from the standard language are also used ("ga-ša-an" rather than standard "nin," "lady"). Grammatical overview Sumerian is an agglutinative, split ergative, and subject-object-verb language. It behaves as a nominative–accusative language in the 1st and 2nd persons of the incomplete tense-aspect, but as ergative–absolutive in most other forms of the indicative mood. Sumerian nouns are organized in two grammatical genders based on animacy: animate and inanimate. Animate nouns include humans, gods, and in some instances the word for "statue." Suffixes mark a noun's case: absolutive ("-Ø"), ergative ("-e"), dative/allative ("-r(a)" animate, -e inanimate, "to, for"), genitive (-(a)k "of"), locative (-a, only inanimate, "in, at"), comitative (-da "with"), equative (-gin "as, like"), directive/adverbial (-š(e) "toward"), ablative (-ta, only inanimate, "from"). The naming and number of cases vary according to differing analyses of Sumerian linguistics. Noun phrases are right branching with adjectives and modifiers following nouns. Sumerian verbs have a tense-aspect complex, contrasting complete and incomplete actions/states. The two have different conjugations and many have different roots. Verbs also mark mood, voice, polarity, iterativity, and intensity; and agree with subjects and objects in number, person, animacy, and case. Sumerian moods are:
    
21. Title: Wikiwand: Babylon
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Babylon;
    Note: Babylon was the capital city of Babylonia, a kingdom in ancient Mesopotamia, between the 18th and 6th centuries BC. It was built along the left and right banks of the Euphrates river with steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. Babylon was originally a small Akkadian town dating from the period of the Akkadian Empire c. 2300 BC. The town became part of a small independent city-state with the rise of the First Babylonian dynasty in the 19th century BC. The Amorite king Hammurabi created a short-lived empire in the 18th century BC. He built Babylon into a major city and declared himself its king. Southern Mesopotamia became known as Babylonia and Babylon eclipsed Nippur as its holy city. The empire waned under Hammurabi's son Samsu-iluna and Babylon spent long periods under Assyrian, Kassite and Elamite domination. After being destroyed and then rebuilt by the Assyrians, Babylon became the capital of the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire from 609 to 539 BC. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the city came under the rule of the Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Roman, and Sassanid empires. It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world c. 1770 – c. 1670 BC, and again c. 612 – c. 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000. Estimates for the maximum extent of its area range from 890[3] to 900 hectares (2,200 acres). The remains of the city are in present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (53 mi) south of Baghdad, comprising a large tell of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references in cuneiform texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the Bible, descriptions in classical writing (especially by Herodotus), and second-hand descriptions (citing the work of Ctesias and Berossus)—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC. Name The spelling "Babylon" is the Latin representation of Greek "Babulṓn" (Βαβυλών), derived from the native (Babylonian) "Bābilim," meaning "gate of the god(s)." The cuneiform spelling was 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠 KA2.DIG̃IR.RAKI. This would correspond to the Sumerian phrase "kan diĝirak," "gate of the god." The 𒆍 KA2 is the ideograph for "gate," 𒀭 DIG̃IR is "god," and the 𒊏, "ra" is phonetic. The final 𒆠 KI is the determiner for a place name. Archibald Sayce, writing in the 1870s, postulated that the Semitic name was a loan-translation of the original Sumerian name. However, the "gate of god" interpretation is increasingly viewed as a Semitic folk etymology to explain an unknown original non-Semitic placename. I.J. Gelb in 1955 argued that the original name was "Babil" or "Babilla," of unknown meaning and origin, as there were other similarly-named places in Sumer, and there are no other examples of Sumerian place-names being replaced with Akkadian translations. He deduced that it later transformed into Akkadian "Bāb-ili(m)." The Sumerian name "Ka-dig̃irra" was loan translation of the Semitic folk etymology, and not the original name. The re-translation of the Semitic name into Sumerian would have taken place at the time of the "Neo-Sumerian" Third Dynasty of Ur. ("Bab-Il"). In the Hebrew Bible, the name appears as "Babel" (Hebrew: בָּבֶל,‎" Bavel," Tib. בָּבֶל, "Bāḇel"; Classical Syriac: ܒܒܠ,‎ "Bāwēl," Aramaic: בבל,‎" Babel; in Arabic: بَابِل‎ Bābil), interpreted in the Book of Genesis to mean "confusion," from the verb "bilbél" (בלבל, "to confuse"). The modern English verb, "to babble" ("to speak meaningless words"), popularly is thought to derive from this name, but there is no direct connection. Ancient records in some situations use "Babylon" as a name for other cities, including cities like Borsippa within Babylon's sphere of influence, and Nineveh for a short period after the Assyrian sack of Babylon. Geography The remains of the city are in present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (53 mi) south of Baghdad, comprising a large tell of broken mud-brick buildings and debris. The site at Babylon consists of a number of mounds covering an area of about 2 by 1 kilometer (1.24 mi × 0.62 mi), oriented north to south, along the Euphrates to the west. Originally, the river roughly bisected the city, but the course of the river has since shifted so that most of the remains of the former western part of the city are now inundated. Some portions of the city wall to the west of the river also remain. Only a small portion of the ancient city (3% of the area within the inner walls; 1.5% of the area within the outer walls; 0.1% at the depth of Middle and Old Babylon) has been excavated. Known remains include: . Kasr – also called Palace or Castle, it is the location of the Neo-Babylonian ziggurat Etemenanki and lies in the center of the site. . Amran Ibn Ali – the highest of the mounds at 25 meters (82 ft) to the south. It is the site of Esagila, a temple of Marduk which also contained shrines to Ea and Nabu. . Homera – a reddish-colored mound on the west side. Most of the Hellenistic remains are here. . Babil – a mound about 22 meters (72 ft) high at the northern end of the site. Its bricks have been subject to looting since ancient times. It held a palace built by Nebuchadnezzar. Archaeologists have recovered few artifacts predating the Neo-Babylonian period. The water table in the region has risen greatly over the centuries, and artifacts from the time before the Neo-Babylonian Empire are unavailable to current standard archaeological methods. Additionally, the Neo-Babylonians conducted significant rebuilding projects in the city, which destroyed or obscured much of the earlier record. Babylon was pillaged numerous times after revolting against foreign rule, most notably by the Hittites and Elamites in the 2nd millennium, then by the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Achaemenid Empire in the 1st millennium. Much of the western half of the city is now beneath the river, and other parts of the site have been mined for commercial building materials. Only the Koldewey expedition recovered artifacts from the Old Babylonian period. These included 967 clay tablets, stored in private houses, with Sumerian literature and lexical documents. Nearby ancient settlements are Kish, Borsippa, Dilbat, and Kutha. Marad and Sippar were 60 kilometers (37 mi) in either direction along the Euphrates. Sources Historical knowledge of early Babylon must be pieced together from epigraphic remains found elsewhere, such as at Uruk, Nippur, and Haradum. Information on the Neo-Babylonian city is available from archaeological excavations and from classical sources. Babylon was described, perhaps even visited, by a number of classical historians including Ctesias, Herodotus, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Strabo, and Cleitarchus. These reports are of variable accuracy and some of the content was politically motivated, but these still provide useful information. Early references References to the city of Babylon can be found in Akkadian and Sumerian literature from the late third millennium BC. One of the earliest is a tablet describing the Akkadian king Šar-kali-šarri laying the foundations in Babylon of new temples for Annūnı̄tum and Ilaba. Babylon also appears in the administrative records of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which collected in-kind tax payments and appointed an ensi as local governor. The so-called Weidner Chronicle (also known as ABC 19) states that Sargon of Akkad (c. 23d century BC in the short chronology) had built Babylon "in front of Akkad" (ABC 19:51). A later chronicle states that Sargon "dug up the dirt of the pit of Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Akkad." (ABC 20:18–19). Van de Mieroop has suggested that those sources may refer to the much later Assyrian king Sargon II of the Neo-Assyrian Empire rather than Sargon of Akkad. Classical dating Ctesias, quoted by Diodorus Siculus and in George Syncellus's "Chronographia," claimed to have access to manuscripts from Babylonian archives that date the founding of Babylon to 2286 BC, under the reign of its first king, Belus. A similar figure is found in the writings of Berossus, who according to Pliny, stated that astronomical observations commenced at Babylon 490 years before the Greek era of Phoroneus, indicating 2243 BC. Stephanus of Byzantium wrote that Babylon was built 1002 years before the date given by Hellanicus of Lesbos for the siege of Troy (1229 BC), which would date Babylon's foundation to 2231 BC. All of these dates place Babylon's foundation in the 23rd century BC; however, cuneiform records have not been found to correspond with these classical (post-cuneiform) accounts. History By around the 19th century BC, much of southern Mesopotamia was occupied by Amorites, nomadic tribes from the northern Levant who were Northwest Semitic speakers, unlike the native Akkadians of southern Mesopotamia and Assyria, who spoke East Semitic. The Amorites at first did not practice agriculture like more advanced Mesopotamians, preferring a semi-nomadic lifestyle, herding sheep. Over time, Amorite grain merchants rose to prominence and established their own independent dynasties in several south Mesopotamian city-states, most notably Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, Lagash, and later, founding Babylon as a state. Old Babylonian period According to a Babylonian date list, Amorite rule in Babylon began (c. 19th or 18th century BC) with a chieftain named Sumu-abum, who declared independence from the neighboring city-state of Kazallu. Sumu-la-El, whose dates may be concurrent with those of Sumu-abum, is usually given as the progenitor of the First Babylonian dynasty. Both are credited with building the walls of Babylon. In any case, the records describe Sumu-la-El's military successes establishing a ..