顓頊 黃姬

• Preferred Name: 顓頊 黃姬^{[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30]}
  
• Alternate Name: 顓頊 姬
  
• Alternate Name: 乾荒 姬
  
• Alternate Name: 玄囂 姬
  
• Alternate Name: 顓頊 公孫
  
• Gender: M
  
• Death: 西元前2785年
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: 玄帝
  
• Birth: 西元前2735年
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: a mythological emperor of ancient China with note: Wikiwand: Zhuanxu
  
• FSID: LHXV-D98
  
• Notes:

  === Life Sketch ===
  二世顓頊：
  昌意之子，母曰昌僕，生而聖瑞，能專正天人之道，故謂之顓頊。年十歲，佐少昊（玄囂），廿歲即帝位，初國于高陽，因號高陽氏，都于帝丘。以民事紀官，命南正重司天，而鬼神治、命北耳黎司地，而綱紀明，理四時五行之氣，以教化萬民。帝妃鄒屠氏，生九子，曰駱朋、蒼舒、隤敳（譜上為豈+文）、檮戭、大臨、厖降、庭堅、仲容、叔達。自蒼舒至椒達，所謂齊聖淵明，嘉元篤誠，世得其利，謂之八愷者也。又娶潰氏之女，而生稱（一作大稱）、次為穿蟬（五傳至帝舜）。帝崩葬頓丘，在位七十八年（四元前二五一三~二四三六），享壽九十八歲。傳位少昊孫高辛是為帝悎。
  
  === 生若水１０年佐少昊，２０歲即帝位，以水德紹金天氏為天子，初國名高陽氏在位７８年娶 ===
  生若水１０年佐少昊，２０歲即帝位，以水德紹金天氏為天子，初國名高陽氏在位７８年娶鄒屠氏生１１子。壽９１歲
  
  === Renamed 乾荒。 ===

1. 仲容 姬, b. 2494 BC in China     d. in China

1. 窮蝉 姬, b. 大约西元前2566年 in 中國    

• m. ABT 2487 in Qufu, Shangdong

• m. 2548 BC

1. 卷 黃 （前5世）,    

1. Title: Wikiwand: Shandong
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Shandong;
   Note: Shandong (山东; alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural and religious center for Taoism, Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism. Shandong's Mount Tai is the most revered mountain of Taoism and one of the world's sites with the longest history of continuous religious worship. The Buddhist temples in the mountains to the south of the provincial capital of Jinan were once among the foremost Buddhist sites in China. The city of Qufu is the birthplace of Confucius and was later established as the center of Confucianism. Shandong's location at the intersection of ancient as well as modern north–south and east–west trading routes have helped to establish it as an economic center. After a period of political instability and economic hardship that began in the late 19th century, Shandong has emerged as one of the most populous (99,470,000 inhabitants at the 2016 Census) and affluent provinces in the People's Republic of China, with a GDP of CNY¥7.65 trillion in 2018 or USD$1.156 trillion, making it China's third wealthiest province. Shandong is also the world's sixth-most populous subnational entity. Name Individually, the two Chinese characters in the name "Shandong" mean "mountain" (山) and "east" (东). Shandong could hence be translated literally as "east of the mountains" and refers to the province's location to the east of the Taihang Mountains. A common nickname for Shandong is Qílǔ (simplified Chinese: 齐鲁; traditional Chinese: 齊魯), after the States of Qi and Lu that existed in the area during the Spring and Autumn period. Whereas the State of Qi was a major power of its era, the State of Lu played only a minor role in the politics of its time. Lu, however, became renowned for being the home of Confucius and hence its cultural influence came to eclipse that of the State of Qi. The cultural dominance of the State of Lu heritage is reflected in the official abbreviation for Shandong which is "鲁" (Chinese: 魯; pinyin: "Lǔ"). English speakers in the 19th century called the province "Shan-tung." Location The province is on the eastern edge of the North China Plain and in the lower reaches of the Yellow River (Huang He), and extends out to sea as the Shandong Peninsula. Shandong borders the Bohai Sea to the north, Hebei to the northwest, Henan to the west, Jiangsu to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the southeast; it also shares a very short border with Anhui, between Henan and Jiangsu. History Ancient history With its location on the eastern edge of the North China Plain, Shandong was home to a succession of Neolithic cultures for millennia, including the Houli culture (6500–5500 BCE), the Beixin culture (5300–4100 BCE), the Dawenkou culture (4100–2600 BCE), the Longshan culture (3000–2000 BCE), and the Yueshi culture (1900–1500 BCE). The earliest dynasties (the Shang dynasty and Zhou dynasty) exerted varying degrees of control over western Shandong, while eastern Shandong was inhabited by the Dongyi peoples who were considered "barbarians." Over subsequent centuries, the Dongyi were eventually sinicized. During the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, regional states became increasingly powerful. At this time, Shandong was home to two major states: the state of Qi at Linzi and the state of Lu at Qufu. Lu is noted for being the home of Confucius. The state was, however, comparatively small, and eventually succumbed to the larger state of Chu from the south. The state of Qi, on the other hand, was a major power throughout the period. Cities it ruled included Linzi, Jimo (north of modern Qingdao) and Ju. The easternmost part of the peninsula was ruled by the Dongyi state of Lai until it was conquered by Qi in 567 BC. Early Imperial history The Qin dynasty conquered Qi and founded the first centralized Chinese state in 221 BCE. The Han dynasty that followed created a number of commanderies supervised by two regions (刺史部) in what is now modern Shandong: Qingzhou (青州) in the north and Yanzhou (兗州) in the south. During the division of the Three Kingdoms, Shandong belonged to the Cao Wei, which ruled over northern China. After the Three Kingdoms period, a brief period of unity under the Western Jin dynasty gave way to invasions by nomadic peoples from the north. Northern China, including Shandong, was overrun. Over the next century or so Shandong changed hands several times, falling to the Later Zhao, then Former Yan, then Former Qin, then Later Yan, then Southern Yan, then the Liu Song dynasty, and finally the Northern Wei dynasty, the first of the Northern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties Period. Shandong stayed with the Northern dynasties for the rest of this period. In 412 CE, the Chinese Buddhist monk Faxian landed at Laoshan, on the southern edge of the Shandong peninsula, and proceeded to Qingzhou to edit and translate the scriptures he had brought back from India. The Sui dynasty reestablished unity in 589, and the Tang dynasty (618-907) presided over the next golden age of China. For the earlier part of this period Shandong was ruled as part of Henan Circuit, one of the circuits (a political division). Later on China splintered into warlord factions, resulting in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Shandong was part of the Five Dynasties, all based in the north. The Song dynasty reunified China in the late tenth century. The classic novel "Water Margin" was based on folk tales of outlaw bands active in Shandong during the Song dynasty. In 1996, the discovery of over two hundred buried Buddhist statues at Qingzhou was hailed as a major archaeological find. The statues included early examples of painted figures, and are thought to have been buried due to Emperor Huizong's repression of Buddhism (he favored Taoism). The Song dynasty was forced to cede northern China to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in 1142. Shandong was administered by the Jin as Shandong East Circuit and Shandong West Circuit – the first use of its current name. Early modern history The modern province of Shandong was created by the Ming dynasty, where it had a more expansive territory including the agricultural part of Liaoning. After the Ming–Qing Transition in 1644, Shandong acquired (more or less) its current borders. During the 19th century, China became increasingly exposed to Western influence, and Shandong, a coastal province, was especially affected. Qingdao was leased to Germany in 1897 and Weihai to Britain in 1898. As a result of foreign pressure from the Russian Empire, which had annexed Outer Manchuria by 1860, the Qing dynasty encouraged settlement of Shandong people to what remained of northeast China. Shandong was one of the first places where the Boxer Rebellion started and became one of the centers of the uprising. In 1899, the Qing general Yuan Shikai was appointed as governor of the province to suppress the uprising. He held the post for three years. As a consequence of the First World War, Germany lost Qingdao and effectively its economic possessions in Shandong. The Treaty of Versailles transferred the German concessions in Shandong to Japan instead of restoring Chinese sovereignty over the area. Popular dissatisfaction with this outcome, referred to as the Shandong Problem, led to the May Fourth Movement. Among the reservations to the Treaty that the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations approved was "to give Shantung to China," the treaty with reservations was not approved. Finally, Shandong reverted to Chinese control in 1922 after mediation by the United States during the Washington Naval Conference. Weihai followed in 1930. The return of control over Shandong fell into the Warlord Era of the Republic of China. Shandong was handed over to the Zhili clique of warlords, but after the Second Zhili–Fengtian War of 1924, the northeast China-based Fengtian clique took over. In April 1925, the Fengtian clique installed the warlord Zhang Zongchang, nicknamed the "Dogmeat General," as military governor of Shandong Province. Time dubbed him China's "basest warlord." He ruled over the province until 1928, when he was ousted in the wake of the Northern Expedition. He was succeeded by Han Fuju, who was loyal to the warlord Feng Yuxiang but later switched his allegiance to the Nanjing government headed by Chiang Kai-shek. Han Fuju also ousted the warlord Liu Zhennian, nicknamed the "King of Shandong East," who ruled eastern Shandong Province, hence unifying the province under his rule. In 1937 Japan began its invasion of China proper in the Second Sino-Japanese War, which would eventually become part of the Pacific theatre of the Second World War. Han Fuju was made Deputy Commander in Chief of the 5th War Area and put in charge defending the lower Yellow River valley. However, he abandoned his base in Jinan when the Japanese crossed the Yellow River. He was executed for not following orders shortly thereafter. Shandong was occupied in its entirety by Japan, with resistance continuing in the countryside, and was one of the provinces where a scorched earth policy ("Three Alls Policy": "kill all," "burn all," "loot all") was implemented by general Yasuji Okamura. This lasted until the surrender of Japan in 1945 killing millions of people in Shandong and Northern China. By 1945, communist forces already held some parts of Shandong. Over the next four years of the Chinese Civil War, they expanded their holdings, eventually driving the Kuomintang (government of the Republic of China) out of Shandong by June 1949. The People's Republic of China was founded in October of the same year. Under the new government, parts of western Shandong were initially given to the short-lived Pingyuan Province, but this did not la...
   
2. Title: Legacy NFS Source: 姬 顓頊 - Individual or family possessions: Family genealogies: birth: ; 中國
   Author: Book, 穎川陳氏 澎湖蒔裡族譜, 穎川陳氏 澎湖蒔裡族譜宗親會, 穎川陳氏 澎湖蒔裡族譜宗親會, Individual, 高雄市, 台灣, 807, 07-3507052 0920181320, Page number: 420
   Note: Individual or family possessions: Family genealogies: birth: ; 中國
   Page: Migrated from user-supplied source citation: urn:familysearch:source:3245298604
   
3. Title: Legacy NFS Source: 姬 顓頊 - Published information: birth-name: 姬龍苗
   Note: Published information: birth-name: 姬龍苗 Published information: male Published information: birth: 2668 BC; China Published information: death: ; Published information: birth-name: 姬玄囂 Published information: male Published information: death: ; China Published information: birth-name: 姬顓頊 Published information: male Published information: birth: 2647 BC; China Published information: death: ;
   Page: Migrated from user-supplied source citation: urn:familysearch:source:3244688781
   
4. Title: Legacy NFS Source: 姬 顓頊 - Published information: Family genealogies: death: 2564 BC; Shandong, China
   Author: Website, 炎黃世系考, 王立, 中國家譜電子檔, Library, 中國族譜大全, 廣州, 中國
   Note: Published information: Family genealogies: death: 2564 BC; Shandong, China
   Page: Migrated from user-supplied source citation: urn:familysearch:source:3245007501
   
5. Title: Legacy NFS Source: 姬 顓頊 - Family genealogies: birth: 2648 BC; Shandong, China
   Author: Electronic document, 百度百科, 不詳, Google.com, Archive, 尹根亮, 620 Kalmia Ct. NW, Issaquah, Washington, 98027
   Note: Family genealogies: birth: 2648 BC; Shandong, China
   Page: Migrated from user-supplied source citation: urn:familysearch:source:3245073619
   
6. Title: Wikiwand: Yellow Emperor
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Yellow_Emperor;
   Note: The Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch, or by his Chinese name Huangdi (/ˈhwɑːŋ ˈdiː/), is a deity ("shen") in Chinese religion, one of the legendary Chinese sovereigns and culture heroes included among the mytho-historical Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors and cosmological Five Forms of the Highest Deity (Chinese: 五方上帝; pinyin: "Wǔfāng Shàngdì"). Calculated by Jesuit missionaries on the basis of Chinese chronicles and later accepted by the twentieth-century promoters of a universal calendar starting with the Yellow Emperor, Huangdi's traditional reign dates are 2697–2597 or 2698–2598 BCE. Huangdi's cult became prominent in the late Warring States and early Han dynasty, when he was portrayed as the originator of the centralized state, as a cosmic ruler, and as a patron of esoteric arts. A large number of texts – such as the "Huangdi Neijing," a medical classic, and the "Huangdi Sijing," a group of political treatises – thus were attributed to him. Having waned in influence during most of the imperial period, in the early twentieth century Huangdi became a rallying figure for Han Chinese attempts to overthrow the rule of the Qing dynasty, which they considered foreign because its emperors were Manchu people. To this day the Yellow Emperor remains a powerful symbol within Chinese nationalism. Traditionally credited with numerous inventions and innovations – ranging from the Chinese calendar to an ancestor of football – the Yellow Emperor is now regarded as the initiator of Chinese culture,[4] and said to be the ancestor of all Chinese.[5] Names "Huangdi": Yellow Emperor, Yellow Thearch Until 221 BCE when Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty coined the title "huangdi" (皇帝) – conventionally translated as "emperor" – to refer to himself, the character "di" 帝 did not refer to earthly rulers but to the highest god of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) pantheon. In the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BCE), the term "di" on its own could also refer to the deities associated with the five Sacred Mountains of China and colors. Huangdi (黃帝), the "yellow di," was one of the latter. To emphasize the religious meaning of "di" in pre-imperial times, historians of early China commonly translate the god's name as "Yellow Thearch" and the first emperor's title as "August Thearch," in which "thearch" refers to a godly ruler. In the late Warring States period, the Yellow Emperor was integrated into the cosmological scheme of the Five Phases, in which the color yellow represents the earth phase, the Yellow Dragon, and the center. The correlation of the colors in association with different dynasties was mentioned in the "Lüshi Chunqiu" (late 3rd century BCE), where the Yellow Emperor's reign was seen to be governed by earth. The character "huang" 黃 ("yellow") often was used in place of the homophonous "huang" 皇, which means "august" (in the sense of 'distinguished') or "radiant," giving Huangdi attributes close to those of Shangdi, the Shang supreme god. Xuanyuan and Youxiong The "Records of the Grand Historian," compiled by Sima Qian in the first century BCE, gives the Yellow Emperor's name as "Xuan Yuan" (traditional Chinese: 軒轅; simplified Chinese: 轩辕; pinyin: "Xuān Yuán"). Third-century scholar Huangfu Mi, who wrote a work on the sovereigns of antiquity, commented that Xuanyuan was the name of a hill where Huangdi had lived and that he later took as a name. The Qing dynasty scholar Liang Yusheng (梁玉繩, 1745–1819) argued instead that the hill was named after the Yellow Emperor. Xuanyuan is also the name of the star Regulus in Chinese, the star being associated with Huangdi in traditional astronomy. He is also associated to the broader constellations Leo and Lynx, of which the latter is said to represent the body of the Yellow Dragon (黃龍 "Huánglóng"), Huangdi's animal form. Huangdi also was referred to as "Youxiong" (有熊; "Yǒuxióng"). This name has been interpreted as either a place name or a clan name. According to British sinologist Herbert Allen Giles (1845–1935), that name was "taken from that of [Huangdi's] hereditary principality." William Nienhauser, a modern translator of the "Records of the Grand Historian," states that Huangdi was originally the head of the Youxiong clan, which lived near what is now Xinzheng in Henan. Rémi Mathieu, a French historian of Chinese myths and religion, translates "Youxiong" as "possessor of bears" and links Huangdi to the broader theme of the bear in world mythology. Ye Shuxian has also associated the Yellow Emperor with bear legends common across northeast Asia people as well as the Dangun legend. Other names Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian describes the Yellow Emperor's ancestral name as Gongsun (公孫).[1] In Han dynasty texts, the Yellow Emperor also is called upon as the "Yellow God" (黃神 "Huángshén"). Certain accounts interpret him as the incarnation of the "Yellow God of the Northern Dipper" (黄神北斗 "Huángshén Běidǒu"), another name of the universal god ("Shangdi" 上帝 or "Tiandi" 天帝). According to a definition in apocryphal texts related to the "Hétú" 河圖, the Yellow Emperor "proceeds from the essence of the Yellow God." As a cosmological deity, the Yellow Emperor is known as the "Great Emperor of the Central Peak" (中岳大帝 Zhōngyuè Dàdì), and in the Shizi as the "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" (黃帝四面 Huángdì Sìmiàn). In old accounts the Yellow Emperor is identified as a deity of light (and his name is explained in the Shuowen jiezi to derive from guāng 光, "light") and thunder, and as one and the same with the "Thunder God" (雷神 Léishén), who in turn, as a later mythological character, is distinguished as the Yellow Emperor's foremost pupil, such as in the Huangdi Neijing. As a cosmological deity, the Yellow Emperor is known as the "Great Emperor of the Central Peak" (中岳大帝 "Zhōngyuè Dàdì"), and in the Shizi as the "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" (黃帝四面 "Huángdì Sìmiàn"). In old accounts the Yellow Emperor is identified as a deity of light (and his name is explained in the "Shuowen jiezi" to derive from "guāng" 光, "light") and thunder, and as one and the same with the "Thunder God" (雷神 "Léishén"), who in turn, as a later mythological character, is distinguished as the Yellow Emperor's foremost pupil, such as in the "Huangdi Neijing." Historicity The Chinese historian Sima Qian – and much Chinese historiography following him – considered the Yellow Emperor to be a more historical figure than earlier legendary figures such as Fu Xi, Nüwa, and Shennong. Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian" begins with the Yellow Emperor, while passing over the others. Throughout most of Chinese history, the Yellow Emperor and the other ancient sages were considered to be historical figures. Their historicity started to be questioned in the 1920s by historians such as Gu Jiegang, one of the founders of the Doubting Antiquity School in China. In their attempts to prove that the earliest figures of Chinese history were mythological, Gu and his followers argued that these ancient sages were originally gods who were later depicted as humans by the rationalist intellectuals of the Warring States period. Yang Kuan, a member of the same current of historiography, noted that only in the Warring States period had the Yellow Emperor started to be described as the first ruler of China. Yang thus argued that Huangdi was a later transformation of Shangdi, the supreme god of the Shang dynasty's pantheon. Also in the 1920s, French scholars Henri Maspero and Marcel Granet published critical studies of China's accounts of high antiquity. In his "Danses et légendes de la Chine ancienne" ["Dances and legends of ancient China"], for example, Granet argued that these tales were "historicized legends" that said more about the time when they were written than about the time they purported to describe. Most scholars now agree that the Yellow Emperor originated as a god who later was represented as a historical person. K.C. Chang sees Huangdi and other cultural heroes as "ancient religious figures" who were "euhemerized" in the late Warring States and Han periods. Historian of ancient China Mark Edward Lewis speaks of the Yellow Emperor's "earlier nature as a god," whereas Roel Sterckx, a professor at University of Cambridge, calls Huangdi a "legendary cultural hero." Origin of the myth The origin of Huangdi's mythology is unclear, but historians have formulated several hypotheses about it. Yang Kuan, a member of the Doubting Antiquity School (1920s–40s), argued that the Yellow Emperor was derived from Shangdi, the highest god of the Shang dynasty. Yang reconstructs the etymology as follows: Shangdi 上帝 → Huang Shangdi 皇上帝 → Huangdi 皇帝 → Huangdi 黄帝, in which he claims that "huang" 黃 ("yellow") either was a variant Chinese character for "huang" 皇 ("august") or was used as a way to avoid the naming taboo for the latter. Yang's view has been criticized by Mitarai Masaru and by Michael Puett. Historian Mark Edward Lewis agrees that "huang" 黄 and "huang" 皇 often were interchangeable, but disagreeing with Yang, he claims that "huang" meaning "yellow" appeared first. Based on what he admits is a "novel etymology" likening "huang" 黄 to the phonetically close "wang" 尪 (the "burned shaman" in Shang rainmaking rituals), Lewis suggests that "Huang" in "Huangdi" originally might have meant "rainmaking shaman" or "rainmaking ritual." Citing late Warring States and early Han versions of Huangdi's myth, he further argues that the figure of the Yellow Emperor originated in ancient rain-making rituals in which Huangdi represented the power of rain and clouds, whereas his mythical rival Chiyou (or the Yan Emperor) stood for fire and drought. Also disagreeing with Yang Kuan's hypothesis, Sarah Allan finds it unlikely that such a popular myth as the Yellow Emperor's could have come from a taboo character. She argues instead that pre-Shang "'history'," including the story of the Yellow Emperor, "can all be under...
   
7. Title: Wikiwand: Bamboo Annals
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Bamboo_Annals;
   Note: The "Bamboo Annals" (Chinese: 竹書紀年; pinyin: "Zhúshū Jìnián"), also known as the "Ji Tomb Annals" (Chinese: 汲冢紀年; pinyin: "Jí Zhǒng Jìnián"), is a chronicle of ancient China. It begins in the earliest legendary time (the age of the Yellow Emperor) and extends to 299 BC, with the later centuries focusing on the history of the State of Wei in the Warring States period. It thus covers a similar period to Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian" (91 BC). The original may have been lost during the Song dynasty, and the text is known today in two versions, a "current text" (or "modern text") of disputed authenticity and an incomplete "ancient text." Textual history The original text was interred with King Xiang of Wei (died 296 BC) and re-discovered nearly six centuries later in 281 AD (Western Jin dynasty) in the Jizhong discovery. For this reason, the chronicle survived the burning of the books by Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Other texts recovered from the same tomb included "Guoyu," "I Ching," and the "Tale of King Mu." They were written on bamboo slips, the usual writing material of the Warring States period, and it is from this that the name of the text derives. The strips were arranged in order and transcribed by court scholars, who identified the work as the state chronicle of Wei. According to Du Yu, who saw the original strips, the text began with the Xia dynasty, and used a series of different pre-Han calendars. However, later indirect reports state that it began with the Yellow Emperor. This version, consisting of 13 scrolls, was lost during the Song dynasty. A 3-scroll version of the "Annals" is mentioned in the "History of Song" (1345), but its relationship to the other versions is not known. The "current text" (今本 "jīnběn") is a 2-scroll version of the text printed in the late 16th century. The first scroll contains a sparse narrative of the pre-dynastic emperors (beginning with the Yellow Emperor), the Xia dynasty and the Shang dynasty. The narrative is interspersed with longer passages on portents, which are identical to passages in the late 5th century "Book of Song." The second scroll contains a more detailed account of the history of the Western Zhou, the state of Jin and its successor state Wei, and has no portent passages. This version gave years according to the sexagenary cycle, a practice that began in the Han dynasty. Discrepancies between the text and quotations of the earlier text in older books led scholars such as Qian Daxin and Shinzō Shinjō to dismiss the "current" version as a forgery, a view still widely held. Other scholars, notably David Nivison and Edward Shaughnessy, argue that substantial parts of it are faithful copies of the original text. The "ancient text" (古本 "gǔběn") is a partial version assembled through painstaking examination of quotations of the lost original in pre-Song works by Zhu Youzeng (late 19th century), Wang Guowei (1917) and Fan Xiangyong (1956). Fang Shiming and Wang Xiuling (1981) have systematically collated all the available quotations, instead of following earlier scholars in trying to merge variant forms of a passage into a single text. The two works that provide the most quotations, the "Shui Jing Zhu" (527) and Sima Zhen's "Shiji Suoyin" (early 8th century), seem to be based on slightly different versions of the text. Translations (in French) Biot, Édouard (1841–42). "Tchou-chou-ki-nien, Annales de bambou Tablettes chronologiques du Livre écrit sur bambou," "Journal asiatique,' Third series, 12, pp. 537–78, and 13, pp. 203–207, 381–431. Legge, James (1865). "The Annals of the Bamboo Books," in "Prolegomena," "The Chinese Classics, volume 3, part 1," pp. 105–188. Rpt. (1960) Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Nivison, David (2009). "The Riddle of the Bamboo Annals" ("Zhushu Jinian Jiemi" 竹書紀年解謎). Taipei: Airiti Press.
   
8. Title: Wikiwand: Leizu
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Leizu;
   Note: Leizu (Chinese: 嫘祖; pinyin: "Léi Zǔ"d), also known as Xi Ling-shi (Chinese: 西陵氏, Wade–Giles Hsi Ling-shih), was a legendary Chinese empress and wife of the Yellow Emperor. According to tradition, she discovered sericulture, and invented the silk loom, in the 27th century BC. Myths Leizu discovered silkworms while having an afternoon tea, and a cocoon fell in her tea. It slowly unraveled and she was enchanted by it. According to one account, a silkworm cocoon fell into her tea, and the heat unwrapped the silk until it stretched across her entire garden. When the silk ran out, she saw a small cocoon and realized that this cocoon was the source of the silk. Another version says that she found silkworms eating the mulberry leaves and spinning cocoons. She collected some cocoons, then sat down to have some tea. While she was sipping a cup, she dropped a cocoon into the steaming water. A fine thread started to separate itself from the milkworm cocoon. Leizu found that she could unwind this soft and lovely thread around her finger. She persuaded her husband to give her a grove of mulberry trees, where she could domesticate the worms that made these cocoons. She is attributed with inventing the silk reel, which joins fine filaments into a thread strong enough for weaving. She also is credited with inventing the first silk loom. It is not known how much, if any, of this story is true, but historians do know that China was the first civilization to use silk. Leizu shared her discoveries with others, and the knowledge became widespread in China. She is a popular object of worship in modern China, with the title of "Silkworm Mother" ("Can Nainai"). Leizu had a son named Changyi with the Yellow Emperor, and he was the father of Emperor Zhuanxu. Zhuanxu's uncles and his father, the sons of Huangdi, were bypassed and Zhuanxu was selected as heir to Huangdi.
   
9. Title: Legacy NFS Source: 姬 顓頊 - Individual or family possessions: Family genealogies: death: ; 中國
   Author: Book, 穎川陳氏 澎湖蒔裡族譜, 穎川陳氏 澎湖蒔裡族譜宗親會, Individual, Carly chen, 高雄市, 台灣, 807, 07-3507052 0920181320, Page number: 420
   Note: Individual or family possessions: Family genealogies: death: ; 中國
   Page: Migrated from user-supplied source citation: urn:familysearch:source:3245298625
   
10. Title: Wikiwand: History of China
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/History_of_China;
    Note: The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the king Wu Ding's reign] who was mentioned as the twenty-first Shang king by the same. Ancient historical texts such as the Book of Documents (early chapters, 11th century BC), the Records of the Grand Historian (c. 100 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) mention and describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period, and Shang writings do not indicate the existence of the Xia. The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which commonly is held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization. The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang, and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times. In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of "Huangdi" or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of "scholar-officials." Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and then in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949. Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood—the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China. Prehistory Paleolithic (3.3 Ma ~ 12 ka) See also: List of Paleolithic sites in China What is now China was inhabited by "Homo erectus" more than a million years ago. Recent study shows that the stone tools found at Xiaochangliang site are magnetostratigraphically dated to 1.36 million years ago. The archaeological site of Xihoudu in Shanxi Province has evidence of use of fire by "Homo erectus," which is dated 1.27 million years ago, and "Homo erectus" fossils in China include the Yuanmou Man, the Lantian Man and the Peking Man. Fossilized teeth of "Homo sapiens" dating to 125,000–80,000 BC have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County in Hunan. Evidence of Middle Palaeolithic Levallois technology has been found in the lithic assemblage of Guanyindong Cave site in southwest China, dated to approximately 170,000–80,000 years ago. Neolithic See also: List of Neolithic cultures of China Further information: Yellow river civilization, Yangtze civilization, and Liao civilization The Neolithic age in China can be traced back to about 10,000 BC. The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, is carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago. Early evidence for proto-Chinese millet agriculture is radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC. Farming gave rise to the Jiahu culture (7000 to 5800 BC). At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing." These pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese. Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC, Damaidi around 6000 BC and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC. Some scholars have suggested that Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BC) were the earliest Chinese writing system. Excavation of a Peiligang culture site in Xinzheng county, Henan, found a community that flourished in 5,500 to 4,900 BC, with evidence of agriculture, constructed buildings, pottery, and burial of the dead. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators. In late Neolithic times, the Yellow River valley began to establish itself as a center of Yangshao culture (5000 BC to 3000 BC), and the first villages were founded; the most archaeologically significant of these was found at Banpo, Xi'an. Later, Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture, which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 BC to 2000 BC. Bronze Age See also: List of Bronze Age sites in China Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC). The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BC) site in northeast China. Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan province is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the ancient kingdom of Shu, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings. Ferrous metallurgy begins to appear in the late 6th century in the Yangzi Valley. A bronze tomahawk with a blade of meteoric iron excavated near the city of Gaocheng in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei province) has been dated to the 14th century BC. For this reason, authors such as Liana Chua and Mark Elliott have used the term "Iron Age" by convention for the transitional period of c. 500 BC to 100 BC, roughly corresponding to the Warring States period of Chinese historiography. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings. Ancient China Xia dynasty (2070 – 1600 BC) Main article: Xia dynasty The Xia dynasty of China (from c. 2070 to c. 1600 BC) is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian" and "Bamboo Annals." The dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959. With few clear records matching the Shang oracle bones, it remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia dynasty or of another culture from the same period. Excavations that overlap the alleged time period of the Xia indicate a type of culturally similar groupings of chiefdoms. Early markings from this period found on pottery and shells are thought to be ancestral to modern Chinese characters. According to ancient records, the dynasty ended around 1600 BC as a consequence of the Battle of Mingtiao. Shang dynasty (1600 – 1046 BC) Main article: Shang dynasty Further information: Chinese Bronze Age Archaeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the Shang dynasty, c. 1600–1046 BC, are divided into two sets. The first set, from the earlier Shang period, comes from sources at Erligang, Zhengzhou, and Shangcheng. The second set, from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, is at Anyang, in modern-day Henan, which has been confirmed as the last of the Shang's nine capitals (c. 1300–1046 BC). The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—the "oracle bones", dating from around 1250 BC. A series of 31 kings reigned over the Shang dynasty. During their reign, according to the "Records of the Grand Historian," the capital city was moved six times. The final (and most important) move was to Yin in around 1300 BC which led to the dynasty's golden age. The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty. Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang. Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty,[34] Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is th...
    
11. Title: Wikiwand: Mi (surname)
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Mi_(surname);
    Note: Mi is the ancient ancestral surname 羋, most notably the name of the imperial house of State of Chu during the Warring States period. It is also the pinyin romanization of various modern Chinese surnames, including 麋, 米, 禰 and others. Mǐ The "Mǐ" (芈) were the royal house of the states of Chu and Kui (夔) during the later Zhou dynasty. They claimed descent from Zhuanxu via his grandson Jilian, whom they credited with founding their dynasty. The Chu Lexicon at the University of Massachusetts conjectures that it was a native Chu word whose meaning was "bear," explaining the cadet members of the family recorded with the surname Xiong (Chinese: "bear"). Chu had a long history of dividing its royal family into numerous cadet branches. Two of the earliest branches of Mi were Dou (鬬) and Cheng (成), together they were known as the Ruo'ao clan. Jing clan (景), Zhao clan (昭), and Qu (屈) clan were later formed by descendants of different Chu kings.[3] Sanlü (三閭) was the unified clan name for Jings, Zhaos and Qus. Minor branches include Ye (葉, originally Shenyin 沈尹), Xiang (項), Lan (蘭), Zha (查) among others. Some of the Pans (潘) of China come from a cadet branch of the family, descended from Pan Chong of the Chu line. Notable people with the surname Mi (羋) . Kings of Chu . Mi Bazi (羋八子, the Queen of Qin's King Huiwen.) . Qu Yuan (屈原, clan name Qu, author of Chu Ci) . Xiang Yu (項羽, clan name Xiang, Chinese historical hero who was famous for his rivalry with Liu Bang) . Duke of Ye (Prime minister of Chu during the late Spring and Autumn period. Clan name Ye, the first Ye.) . Ban Gu, Ban Chao and Ban Jieyu (three siblings from Ruo'ao clan) Mi (米) 59th on the "Hundred Family Surnames." It is considered one of the "Nine Sogdian Surnames." . Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty Mi (禰) . Mi Heng (禰衡; 173 – 200) – Scholar in the Late Han Dynasty Mi (糜) . Mi Zhu (糜竺; died c. 221) – Official under warlord Liu Bei in the Late Han Dynasty . Mi Fang (糜芳) General under Liu Bei then military general of Eastern Wu
    
12. Title: Li Genealogy Records Volume 1 - Page B2
    Author: Li Genealogy Book Volume 1 - John Michael Chan's possession
    Publication: Name: https://www.familysearch.org/photos/artifacts/20293424;
    Note: Page B2 with 5 generation before him
    Page: Established estimated timeline from 7th generation - see source attached.
    
13. Title: Legacy NFS Source: 姬 顓頊 - Individual or family possessions: birth-name: 顓頊
    Note: Individual or family possessions: birth-name: 顓頊 Individual or family possessions: male Individual or family possessions: birth: about 1310 BC; China Individual or family possessions: death: about 1210 BC; China
    Page: Migrated from user-supplied source citation: urn:familysearch:source:3244439168
    
14. Title: Legacy NFS Source: 姬 顓頊 - Published information: birth-name: 姬顓顼 虞幕
    Author: Book, Library
    Note: Published information: birth-name: 姬顓顼 虞幕
    Page: Migrated from user-supplied source citation: urn:familysearch:source:3245084334
    
15. Title: Wikiwand: Zhuanxu
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Zhuanxu;
    Note: Zhuanxu (Chinese: trad. 顓頊, simp. 颛顼, pinyin "Zhuānxū"), also known as Gao Yang (t 高陽, s 高阳, p "Gāoyáng"), was a mythological emperor of ancient China. In the traditional account recorded by Sima Qian, Zhuanxu was a grandson of the Yellow Emperor who led the Shi clan in an eastward migration to present-day Shandong, where intermarriages with the Dongyi clan enlarged and augmented their tribal influences. At age twenty, he became their sovereign, going on to rule for seventy-eight years until his death. Family Zhuanxu was the grandson of the Yellow Emperor and his wife Leizu by way of his father Changyi. His mother was named Changtsu according to Sima Qian, Niuqu according to the "Bamboo Annals." Zhuanxu subsequently was claimed as an ancestor by many of the dynasties of Chinese history, including the Mi of Chu and Yue, the Yíng of Qin, and the Cao of Wei. Reign Zhuanxu was held by many sources to be one of the Five Emperors. According to Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian," upon the passing of the Yellow Emperor, Zhuanxu's uncle Shaohao never actually reigned as king, as in other reports. Rather, Gaoyang was chosen as the tribe's new leader, with the regnal name Zhuanxu, in preference to his father and all his uncles. Zhuanxu defeated Gonggong, a descendant of the Emperor Yan. However, the account in the "Bamboo Annals" states that Zhuanxu became an assistant to his uncle, Emperor Shaohao, at the age of ten, and became king in his own right at age 20. He made contributions to a unified calendar, astrology, religion reforms to oppose shamanism, upheld the patriarchal (as opposed to the previous matriarchal) system, and forbade close-kin marriage. The "Bamboo Annals" also credit him with composing one of the earliest pieces of music, known as "The Answer to the Clouds." Zhuanxu was succeeded by his cousin, Shaohao's grandson, Ku. According to "Shiji," Zhuanxu himself, or Zhuanxu's lineage, had an incompetent son (不才子) derided as Taowu (梼杌; literally: "block-stump; blockhead"). Two other descendants of Zhuanxu also were named: one is Zhuanxu's son Qiongchan, from whom descended Emperor Shun; the other is Gun, father of Yu the Great. Emperor Yao also had criticized Gun for being incompetent and ruinous. Qiongchan was an insignificant commoner though it does not mention how he fell from grace. Eight other of Zhuanxu's descendants, unnamed yet of good repute, later worked for Shun. Calendar The "Bamboo Annals" record that in his 13th year of reign, Zhuanxu "invented calendric calculations and delineations of the heavenly bodies." Since Zhuanxu was claimed as a founder of the Qin dynasty, his name was taken for inauguration of the new calendar system by Shi Huangdi. Mythology Zhuanxu is also mentioned as a god of the Pole Star. Potential connection with Longshan culture? Zhuanxu commonly is associated with the extremely important myth of the separation of the Heaven from Earth. According to the Lu Xing chapter of Shang Shu: "We are told that the Miao ... created oppressive punishments which the people into disorder. Shang Di, the Lord on High ... surveyed the people and found them lacking in virtue. Out of pity for those who were innocent, the August Lord .. had the Miao exterminated. 'Then he charged Chong and Li to cut the communication between Heaven and Earth so that there would be no descending and ascending." After this had been done, order was restored and the people returned to virtue." Several Chinese mythologists interpreted this myth as a representation or symbolization of the increasing social stratification occurring. Before the 'separation of Earth and Heaven', in Yangshao culture, it was open to every household that had or could hire a shaman. However, during Longshan culture, shamans could be hired only by a few people, suggesting a monopoly of the ability to ascend to and descend from Heaven. In this sense, this myth marks the start of social stratification on China's rise to civilization. Episode According to "Samguk Sagi," the kings of Goguryeo regarded themselves as a descendant of Chinese heroes because he called his surname "Go" (Hanja: 高) as they were the descendant of Gao Yang (Hanja: 高陽) who was a grandchild of the Yellow Emperor and Gaoxin (Hanja: 高辛) who was a great-grandchild of Yellow Emperor.
    
16. Title: Legacy NFS Source: 姬 顓頊 - Family genealogies: birth-name: 少昊帝金氏
    Author: Website, 炎黃世系考, 王立(本站顧問), www.mondlango.com/kulturo/w142.htm, Individual, 尹根亮, 620 Kalmia Ct.NW, Issaquah, WA 98027., Issaquah, Washington, USA
    Note: Family genealogies: birth-name: 少昊帝金氏 Family genealogies: male
    Page: Migrated from user-supplied source citation: urn:familysearch:source:3244681693
    
17. Title: Wikiwand: Chu (state)
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Chu_(state)#/History;
    Note: Chu (Chinese: 楚, Hanyu Pinyin: "Chǔ," Old Chinese: "s-r̥aʔ") was a hegemonic, Zhou dynasty era state. From King Wu of Chu in the early 8th century BCE, the rulers of Chu declared themselves kings on an equal footing with the Zhou kings. Though initially inconsequential, removed to the south of the Zhou heartland and practising differing customs, Chu began a series of administrative reforms, becoming a successful expansionist state during the Spring and Autumn period. With its continued expansion, Chu became a great Warring States period power, until it was overthrown by the Qin in 223 BCE. Also known as Jing (荆) and Jingchu (荆楚), Chu included most of the present-day provinces of Hubei and Hunan, along with parts of Chongqing, Guizhou, Henan, Anhui, Jiangxi, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Shanghai. For more than 400 years, the Chu capital Danyang was located at the junction of the Dan and Xi Rivers near present-day Xichuan County, Henan, but later moved to Ying. The ruling house of Chu originally bore the clan name Nai (嬭 OC: /*rneːlʔ/) but they are later written as Mi (芈 OC: /*meʔ/), also had the and lineage name Yan (酓 OC: /*qlamʔ/, /*qʰɯːm/) which would later be written Xiong (熊 OC: /*ɢʷlɯm/). History Founding According to legends recounted in Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian," the royal family of Chu descended from the Yellow Emperor and his grandson and successor Zhuanxu. Zhuanxu's great-grandson Wuhui (吳回) was put in charge of fire by Emperor Ku and given the title Zhurong. Wuhui's son Luzhong (陸終) had six sons, all born by Caesarian section. The youngest, Jilian, adopted the ancestral surname Mi.[6] Jilian’s descendant Yuxiong was the teacher of King Wen of Zhou (r. 1099–1050 BCE). After the Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty, King Cheng (r. 1042–1021 BCE) awarded Yuxiong's great-grandson Xiong Yi with the fiefdom of Chu and the hereditary title of 子 ("zǐ," "viscount"). Xiong Yi built the first capital of Chu at Danyang (present-day Xichuan in Henan). Western Zhou In 977 BCE, during his campaign against Chu, King Zhao of Zhou's boat sank and he drowned in the Han River. After this death, Zhou ceased to expand to the south, allowing the southern tribes and Chu to cement their own autonomy much earlier than the states to the north. The Chu viscount Xiong Qu overthrew E in 863 BCE but subsequently made its capital Ezhou one of his capitals. In either 703 or 706, the ruler Xiong Tong proclaimed himself king, establishing Chu's full independence from the Zhou dynasty. Spring and Autumn Period In its early years, Chu was a successful expansionist and militaristic state that developed a reputation for coercing and absorbing its allies. Subsequently, Chu grew from a small state into a large kingdom. Under the reign of King Zhuang, Chu reached the height of its power and was considered one of the five Hegemons of the era. After a number of battles with neighboring states, sometime between 695 and 689 BCE, the Chu capital moved south-east from Danyang to Ying. Chu first consolidated its power by absorbing lesser states in its original area (modern Hubei), then it expanded into the north towards the North China Plain. In the summer of 648 BCE, the State of Huang was annexed by the state of Chu. The threat from Chu resulted in multiple northern alliances under the leadership of Jin. These alliances kept Chu in check, and the Chu kingdom lost their first major battle at the Chengpu in 632 BCE. During the 6th century BCE, Jin and Chu fought numerous battles over the hegemony of central plain. In 597 BCE, Jin was defeated by Chu in the battle of Bi, causing Jin's temporary inability to counter Chu's expansion. Chu strategically used the state of Zheng as its representative in the central plain area, through the means of intimidation and threats, Chu forced Zheng to ally with itself. On the other hand, Jin had to balance out Chu's influence by repeatedly allying with Lu, Wey, and Song. The tension between Chu and Jin did not loosen until the year of 579 BCE when a truce was signed between the two states. At the beginning of the sixth century BCE, Jin strengthened the state of Wu near the Yangtze delta to act as a counterweight against Chu. Wu defeated Qi and then invaded Chu in 506 BCE. Following the Battle of Boju, it occupied Chu's capital at Ying, forcing King Zhao to flee to his allies in Yun and "Sui." King Zhao eventually returned to Ying but, after another attack from Wu in 504 BCE, he temporarily moved the capital into the territory of the former state of Ruo. Chu began to strengthen Yue in modern Zhejiang to serve as allies against Wu. Yue was initially subjugated by King Fuchai of Wu until he released their king Goujian, who took revenge for his former captivity by crushing and completely annexing Wu. Warring States period Freed from its difficulties with Wu, Chu annexed Chen in 479 BCE and overran Cai to the north in 447 BCE. This policy of expansion continued until the last generation before the fall to Qin (Lu was conquered by King Kaolie in 223 BCE). However, by the end of the 5th century BCE, the Chu government had become very corrupt and inefficient, with much of the state's treasury used primarily to pay for the royal entourage. Many officials had no meaningful task except taking money and Chu's army, while large, was of low quality. In the late 390s BCE, King Dao of Chu made Wu Qi his chancellor. Wu's reforms began to transform Chu into an efficient and powerful state in 389 BCE, as he lowered the salaries of officials and removed useless officials. He also enacted building codes to make the capital Ying seem less barbaric. Despite Wu Qi's unpopularity among Chu's ruling class, his reforms strengthened the king and left the state very powerful until the late 4th century BCE, when Zhao and Qin were ascendant. Chu's powerful army once again became successful, defeating the states of Wei and Yue. Yue was partitioned between Chu and Qi in either 334 or 333 BCE. However, the officials of Chu wasted no time in their revenge and Wu Qi was assassinated at King Dao's funeral in 381 BCE. Prior to Wu's service in the state of Chu, Wu lived in the state of Wei, where his military analysis of the six opposing states was recorded in his magnum opus, "The Book of Master Wu." Of Chu, he said: "Chu's military formations are complete but cannot be maintained for long." — Wuzi, "Master Wu" "The Chu people are soft and weak. Their lands stretch far and wide, and the government cannot effectively administer the expanse. Their troops are weary and although their formations are well-ordered, they do not have the resources to maintain their positions for long. To defeat them, we must strike swiftly, unexpectedly and retreat quickly before they can counter-attack. This will create unease in their weary soldiers and reduce their fighting spirit. Thus, with persistence, their army can be defeated." — Wuzi, "Master Wu" During the late Warring States period, Chu increasingly was pressured by Qin to its west, especially after Qin enacted and preserved the Legalistic reforms of Shang Yang. In 241 BCE, five of the seven major warring states - Chu, Zhao, Wei, Yan and Han - formed an alliance to fight the rising power of Qin. King Kaolie of Chu was named the leader of the alliance and Lord Chunshen the military commander. According to historian Yang Kuan, the Zhao general Pang Nuan (庞煖) was the actual commander in the battle. The allies attacked Qin at the strategic Hangu Pass but were defeated. King Kaolie blamed Lord Chunshen for the loss and began to mistrust him. Afterwards, Chu moved its capital east to Shouchun, farther away from the threat of Qin. Chu's size and power made it the key state in alliances against Qin. As Qin expanded into Chu's territory, Chu was forced to expand southwards and eastwards, absorbing local cultural influences along the way. By the late 4th century BCE, however, Chu's prominent status had fallen into decay. As a result of several invasions headed by Zhao and Qin, Chu eventually was subjugated by Qin. Defeat Main article: Qin's wars of unification § Conquest of Chu According to the "Records of the Warring States," a debate between the Diplomat strategist Zhang Yi and the Qin general Sima Cuo led to two conclusions concerning the unification of China. Zhang Yi argued in favor of conquering Han and seizing the Mandate of Heaven from the powerless Zhou king would be wise. Sima Cuo, however, considered that the primary difficulty was not legitimacy but the strength of Qin's opponents; he argued that "conquering Shu is conquering Chu" and, "once Chu is eliminated, the country will be united." The importance of Shu in the Sichuan Basin was its great agricultural output and its control over the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, leading directly into the Chu heartland. King Huiwen of Qin opted to support Sima Cuo. In 316 BCE, Qin invaded and conquered Shu and nearby Ba, expanding downriver in the following decades. In 278 BCE, the Qin general Bai Qi finally conquered Chu's capital at Ying. Following the fall of Ying, the Chu government moved to various locations in the east until settling in Shouchun in 241 BCE. After a massive two-year struggle, Bai Qi lured the main Zhao force of 400,000 men onto the field, surrounding them and forcing their surrender at Changping in 260 BCE. The Qin army massacred their prisoners, removing the last major obstacle to Qin dominance over the Chinese states. By 225 BCE, only four kingdoms remained: Qin, Chu, Yan, and Qi. Chu had recovered sufficiently to mount serious resistance. Despite its size, resources, and manpower, though, Chu's corrupt government worked against it. In 224 BCE, Ying Zheng called for a meeting with his subjects to discuss his plans for the invasion of Chu. Wang Jian said that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, while Li Xin thought that less than 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng sided with Li and or...
    
18. Title: Wikiwand: Dongyi
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Dongyi;
    Note: The Dongyi or Eastern Yi (simplified Chinese: 东夷; traditional Chinese: 東夷; pinyin: "Dōngyí"; Wade–Giles: "Tung-i") was a collective term for ancient peoples found in Chinese records. The definition of Dongyi varied across the ages, but in most cases referred to inhabitants of eastern and northeastern China, the Korean peninsula, or Japan. They were one of the Four Barbarians in Chinese culture, along with the Northern Di, the Southern Man, and the Western Rong; as such, the name "Yí" 夷 was something of a catch-all and was applied to different groups over time. According to the earliest Chinese record, the "Zuo Zhuan," the Shang Dynasty was attacked by King Wu of Zhou while attacking the Dongyi and collapsed afterwards. Ancient inhabitants of Shandong area Oracle bone inscriptions from the early 11th century BCE refer to campaigns by the late Shang king Di Yi against the Rénfāng (人方), a group occupying the area of southern Shandong and northern Jiangsu. Many Chinese archaeologists apply the historical name "Dongyi" to the archaeological Yueshi culture (1900–1500 BCE). Other scholars, such as Fang Hui, consider this identification problematic because of the high frequency of migrations in prehistoric populations of the region. "Yi" (夷) The Chinese word "yí" in "Dōngyí" has a long history and complex semantics. Characters The modern Chinese regular script character 夷 for "yí" combines radicals (recurring character elements) da 大 "big" and "gong" 弓 "bow," which also are seen in the seal script. However, "yí" was written in the earlier bronze script as a person wrapped with something, and in the earliest oracle bone script as a person with a bent back and legs. The (121 CE) "Shuowen Jiezi" character dictionary, defines "yí" 夷 as "men of the east" 東方之人也. The dictionary also informs that "yí" 夷 is not dissimilar from the "Xià" 夏, which means referred to the Chinese. Elsewhere in the "Shuowen Jiezi," under the entry of "qiang" 羌, the term "yí" is associated with benevolence and human longevity. Yí countries are therefore virtuous places where people live long lives. This is why Confucius wanted to go to yí countries when the dao could not be realized in the central states. The scholar Léon Wieger provided multiple definitions for the term "yí": "The men 大 armed with bows 弓, the primitive inhabitants, barbarians, borderers of the Eastern Sea, inhabitants of the South-West countries." Bernhard Karlgren says that in the bronze script for "yí" inscribed on Zhou Dynasty (c. 1045 BCE – c. 256 BCE) Chinese bronze inscriptions, "The graph has 'man' and 'arrow', or 'arrow' with something wound around the shaft." The Yi, or Dongyi, are associated with the bow and arrow: K. C. Wu says the modern character 夷 designating the historical "Yí peoples," is composed of the characters for 大 "big (person)" and 弓 "bow"; which implies a big person carrying a bow, and also that this old form of this Chinese character was composed with an association of a certain group of people with the use of the bow in mind. Some classic Chinese history records like "Zuo Zhuan," "Shuowen Jiezi," "Classic of Rites," all have some similar records about this. The earliest records of "yi" were inscribed on oracle bones dating from the late Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE). This oracle bone script was used interchangeably for "yí" 夷, "rén" 人 "human," and "shī" 尸 "corpse; personator of the dead; inactive; lay out." The archeologist and scholar Guo Moruo believed the oracle graph for "yi" denotes "a dead body, i.e., the killed enemy," while the bronze graph denotes "a man bound by a rope, i.e., a prisoner or slave." The historical linguist Xu Zhongshu [zh] explains this oracle character depicts either a "corpse"' with two bent legs or a "barbarian" custom of sitting with one's legs stretched out instead of the Chinese norm of squatting on one's heels. The early China historian Li Feng says the Western Zhou bronze graph for "Yí" was "differentiated from "rén" 人 (human) by its kneeling gesture, clearly implying a population that was deemed a potential source of slaves or servants," thus meaning "foreign conquerable." Axel Schuessler hypothesizes an Old Chinese etymological development from *li 夷 "extend; expose; display; set out; spread out" to "lhi" 尸 "to spread out; lie down flat (in order to sleep); motionless; to set forth (sacrificial dishes)," to "personator of a dead ancestor," and to "corpse." Etymology Historical linguists tentatively have reconstructed "yí" 夷's ancient pronunciations and etymology. The Modern Standard Chinese pronunciation "yí" descends from (c. 6th–9th centuries CE) Middle Chinese and (c. 6th–3rd centuries BCE) Old Chinese. Middle and Old Chinese reconstructions of "yí" 夷 "barbarian; spread out" include i < "djər," "yij" < *ljɨj," "jiɪ" < "lil," and "ji" < "ləi." As to the most recent reconstruction, William H. Baxter and Laurent Sagart (2014) reconstruct the Old Chinese name of "yí" 夷 as "ləj." As Yuèjuèshū (越絕書) states that the Yue word for "sea" is also 夷 ("li" → "yí"), Sinologist Axel Schuessler proposes an Austroasiatic etymology for the ethnonym *li by comparing to Khmer ทะเล "dhle," "sea," from Pre-Angkorian Old Khmer ទន្លេ "danle(y)," "large expanse of water"; thus the ethnonym might have referred to a people living by the sea. Usages The sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank describes how "Yi" usages semantically changed. "Their name furnished the primary Chinese term for 'barbarian' and is sometimes used in such a generalized sense as early as the Spring and Autumn period. At the same time it continued to have a specific reference, denoting especially the Yi of the Huai river region, who constituted a recognized political entity. Paradoxically the Yi were considered the most 'civilized' of the non-Chinese peoples." Pre-Qin usages It is not easy to determine the times of people that a Classical Chinese document reflects. Literature describing a pre-Xia Dynasty period does not use the character "yi." As for the Xià Dynasty, some groups of people are referred to as the Yi. For example, the "Yu Gong" chapter of the "Shu Ji" or "Book of Documents" terms people in Qingzhou and Xuzhou Laiyi (萊夷), Yuyi (嵎夷) and Huaiyi (淮夷). Another yi-related term is Jiu-yi (九夷), literally Nine Yi, which could have also had the connotation "The Numerous Yi" or "The Many Different Kinds of Yi," and which appears in a passage in "The Analects" that reads, "The Master (i.e., Confucius) desired to live among the Nine Yi." The term "Dongyi" is not used for this period. Shang Dynasty oracle shell and bone writings record yi but not Dongyi. Shima Kunio's concordance of oracle inscriptions lists twenty occurrences of the script for 夷 or 尸, most frequently (6 times) in the compound zhishi 祉尸 "bless the personator; blessed personator." Michael Carr notes some contexts are ambiguous, but suggests, "Three compounds refer to "barbarian"' (in modern characters, fayi 伐夷 '"attack barbarians," zhengyi 征夷 "punish barbarians," and yifang 夷方 'barbarian regions')." Oracle inscriptions record that Shang King Wu Ding (r. c. 1250–1192 BCE) made military expeditions on the Yi, and King Di Xin (r. c. 1075–1046 BCE) waged a massive campaign against the Yifang 夷方 "barbarian regions." It appears that the Yifang were the same people as Huaiyi (Huai River Yi), Nanhuaiyi (Southern Huai Yi), Nanyi (Southern Yi) and Dongyi according to bronzeware inscriptions of the Western Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou Dynasty attempted to keep the Yi under its control. The most notable example of which is the successful campaign against the Huaiyi and the Dongyi led by the Duke of Zhou. On the other hand, historian Huang Yang notes that in the Shang period, "the term yi probably did not carry the sense of 'barbarian'. Rather it simply denoted one of the many tribes or regions that were the target of the Shang military campaigns ... We see, therefore, that at the beginning the yi might haven been certain particular tribe or group of people that was neighboring the Shang." During the Spring and Autumn period, Jin, Zheng, Qi and Song tried to seize control of the Huai River basin, which was occupied by the Huaiyi, but the region ultimately fell under the influence of Chu to the south. At the same time, people in the east and south ceased to be called Dongyi as they founded their own states. These Yifang states included the states of Xu, Lai, Zhongli, Ju and Jiang. The small state of Jie was based around present-day Jiaozhou. The state of Xu occupied large areas of modern Jiangsu and Anhui provinces between the Huai and Yangtze Rivers. Eventually, after warring with Chu and Wu, it was conquered by the State of Wu in 512 BCE. Chu annexed the State of Jiang, destroyed the State of Ju whose territory was annexed by the State of Qi. Recent archaeological excavations reveal that the State of Xu's presence extended to western Jiangxi in modern Jing'an County. This includes bronzeware inscriptions about the State of Xu and also a tomb with many nanmu coffins containing sacrificial female victims. Dongyi customs include burials with many sacrificial victims and veneration of the sun. References to Dongyi became ideological during the Warring States period, owing to cultural changes in Chinese concepts of Self and Other. When the (c. 4th BCE) "Classic of Rites" recorded stereotypes about the "Siyi" "Four Barbarians" ("Dongyi," "Xirong," "Nanman," and "Beidi") in the four directions, Dongyi had acquired a clearly pejorative nuance. "The people of those five regions – the Middle states, and the [Rong], [Yi], (and other wild tribes round them) – had all their several natures, which they could not be made to alter. The tribes on the east were called [Yi]. They had their hair unbound, and tattooed their bodies. Some of them ate their food without its being cooked. Those on the south were called Man. They tattooed their foreheads, and had their feet turned in towards each other. Some of them (also) ate...
    
19. Title: Wikiwand: Yue (state)
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Yue_(state);
    Note: Yue (Chinese: 越; Old Chinese: "[ɢ]ʷat"), also known as Yuyue (於越), was a state in ancient China that existed during the first millennium BC – the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods of China's Zhou dynasty – in the modern provinces of Zhejiang, Shanghai, and Jiangsu. Its original capital was Kuaiji (modern Shaoxing); after its conquest of Wu, the Kings of Yue moved their court north to the city of Wu (modern Suzhou) and survived until 214 BC. When the Chinese were reunified into Qin Dynasty, Yue become a vassal of the Chinese state. History The name "Baiyue" (百越) was applied indiscriminately to many non-Chinese peoples who had been mentioned in numerous classical texts. A specific kingdom, which had been known as the "Yue Guo" (越國) in modern Zhejiang, was not mentioned until it began a series of wars against its northern Yue neighbor Wu during the late 6th century BC. According to the "Records of the Grand Historian' and "Discourses of the States," the Yue are descended from Wuyu, the son of Shao Kang which as known as the sixth king of the Xia dynasty. With help from Wu's enemy Chu, Yue was able to be victorious after several decades of conflict. The famous Yue King Goujian destroyed and annexed Wu in 473 BC. During the reign of Wujiang (無彊), six generations after Goujian, Yue was partitioned by Chu and Qi in 306 BC. With help from Wu's enemy Chu, Yue was able to be victorious after several decades of conflict. The famous Yue King Goujian destroyed and annexed Wu in 473 BC. During the reign of Wujiang (無彊), six generations after Goujian, Yue was partitioned by Chu and Qi in 306 BC. During its existence, Yue was famous for the quality of its metalworking, particularly its swords. Examples include the extremely well-preserved Swords of Goujian and Zhougou. The Yue state appears to have been a largely indigenous political development in the lower Yangtze. This region corresponds with that of the old corded-ware Neolithic, and it continued to be one that shared a number of practices, such as tooth extraction, pile building, and cliff burial. Austroasiatic speakers also still lived in the region down to its conquest and sinification beginning about 240 BC. What set the Yue apart from other Sinitic states of the time was their possession of a navy. Yue culture was distinct from the Chinese in its practice of naming boats and swords. A Chinese text described the Yue as a people who used boats as their carriages and oars as their horses. Rulers of Yue family tree Their ancestral name is rendered variously as either Si (姒) or Luo (雒 or 駱) Rulers of Yue family tree (1) Marquis Wuyu of Yue 越侯無餘 (2) Marquis Wuren of Yue 越侯無壬 (3) Marquis Wushen of Yue 越侯無瞫 (4) Marquis Futan of Yue 越侯夫譚 (r. 565─538 BC) (5) King Yunchang of Yue 越王允常 (d. 497 BC) (6) King Goujian of Yue 越王勾踐 (496─465 BC) (7) King Luying of Yue 越王鹿郢 (465─459 BC) (8) King Bushou of Yue 越王不壽 (459─449 BC) (9) King Weng of Yue 越王翁 (449─412 BC) (10) King Yi of Yue 越王翳 (412─376 BC) (11) King Zhihou of Yue 越王之侯 (376─375 BC) (12) King Chuwuyu of Yue 越王初無余 (375─365 BC) (13) King Wuzhuan of Yue 越王無顓 (365─357 BC) (14) King Wuqiang of Yue 越王無彊 (357─333 BC) Aftermath Main article: Minyue After the fall of Yue, the ruling family moved south to what is now northern Fujian and set up the Minyue kingdom. This successor state lasted until around 150 BC, when it miscalculated an alliance with the Han dynasty. Mingdi, Wujiang's second son, was appointed minister of Wucheng (present-day Huzhou's Wuxing District) by the king of Chu. He was titled Marquis of Ouyang Ting, from a pavilion on the south side of Ouyu Mountain. The first Qin dynasty emperor Qin Shi Huang abolished the title after his conquest of Chu in 223 BC, but descendants and subjects of its former rulers took up the surnames Ou, Ouyang, and Ouhou (歐侯) in remembrance. When the religious leader Xu Chang launched a rebellion against the Han dynasty in 172 CE, he declared the state of Yue restored and appointed his father Xu Sheng as "King of Yue". The rebels were crushed in 174. Astronomy In Chinese astronomy, there are two stars named for Yue: . Yue (along with Wu) is represented by the star Zeta Aquilae in the "Left Wall" of the Heavenly Market enclosure . Yue is also represented by the star Psi Capricorni or 19 Capricorni in the "Twelve States" of the mansion of the Girl. Biology The virus genus "Yuyuevirus" and the virus family "Yueviridae" both are named after the state. People from Yue . Yuenü, swordswoman & author of the earliest-known exposition on swordplay . Xi Shi, a famous beauty of the ancient Yue Guo. Language Possible languages spoken in the state of Yue may have been of Tai-Kadai and Austronesian origins. Li Hui (2001) identifies 126 Tai-Kadai cognates in Maqiao Wu dialect spoken in the suburbs of Shanghai out of more than a thousand lexical items surveyed. According to the author, these cognates are likely traces of 'old Yue language' (gu Yueyu 古越語). Wolfgang Behr (2002) points out that some scattered non-Sinitic words found in the two ancient Chinese fictional texts, "Mu tianzi zhuan "穆天子傳 (4th c. BC) and "Yuejue shu "越絕書 (1st c. AD), can be compared to lexical items in Tai-Kadai languages: . "吳謂善「伊, 謂稻道「缓, 號從中國, 名從主人." "The Wú say yī for 'good' and 'huăn' for 'way', i.e., in their titles they follow the central kingdoms, but in their names they follow their own lords." 伊 "yī" < MC ʔjij < OC *bq(l)ij ← Siamese "dii, Longzhou "dai," Bo'ai "nii" Daiya "li," Sipsongpanna "di," Dehong "li" < proto-Tai *ʔdɛiA1 | Sui "ʔdaai," Kam "laai," Maonan "ʔdaai," Mak "ʔdaai" < proto-Kam-Sui/proto-Kam-Tai *ʔdaai "good" 缓 [huăn] < MC hwanX < OC *awan ← Siamese "honA," Bo'ai "hɔn," Dioi "thon" < proto-Tai *xronA| Sui khwən-i, Kam khwən, Maonan khun-i, Mulam khwən-i < proto-Kam-Sui *khwən "road, way" | proto-Hlai *kuun || proto-Austronesian *Zalan (Thurgood 1994:353) . yuè jué shū 越絕書 ("The Book of Yuè Records"), 1st c. A.D. 絕 "jué" < MC dzjwet < OC *bdzot ← Siamese "cod" "to record, mark" (Zhengzhang Shangfang 1999:8) . "姑中山者越銅官之山也, 越人謂之銅, 「姑[沽]瀆]." 「姑[沽]瀆」 gūdú < MC ku=duwk < OC *aka=alok ← Siamese "kʰau," "horn," Daiya "xau," Sipsongpanna xau1, Dehong xau1, Lü xău1, Dioi kaou1 'mountain, hill' < proto-Tai *kʰauA2; Siamese luukD2l 'classifier for mountains', Siamese kʰauA1-luukD2l 'mountain' || cf. OC 谷 gǔ < kuwk << *ak-lok/luwk < *akə-lok/yowk < *blok 'valley' "The Middle mountains of "Gū" are the mountains of the Yuè's bronze office, the Yuè people call them 'Bronze gū[gū]dú.'" 「姑[沽]瀆」 gūdú < MC ku=duwk < OC *aka=alok ← Siamese "kau," "horn," Daiya "xau," Sipsongpanna "xau," Dehong "xau," Lü "xău," Dioi "kaou," "mountain, hill" < proto-Tai *kau; Siamese "luuk," "classifier for mountains," Siamese "kau"-"luuk," "mountain" || cf. OC 谷 "gǔ" < kuwk << *ak-lok/luwk < *akə-lok/yowk < *blok "valley" "越人謂船爲「須盧]." "... The Yuè people call a boat 'xūlú.' ('beard' & 'cottage')" 須 xū < MC sju < OC *bs(n)o ? ← Siamese saʔ "noun prefix" 盧 "lú" < MC lu < OC *bra ← Siamese "rɯa," Longzhou "lɯɯ," Bo'ai "luu," Daiya "hə," Dehong "hə," "boa"' < proto-Tai *drɯ[a,o] | Sui "lwa"/"ʔda," Kam "lo"/"lwa," Be "zoa "< proto-Kam-Sui *s-lwa(n), "boat" "[劉]賈築吳市西城, 名曰「定錯」城." "[Líu] Jiă (the king of Jīng 荆) built the western wall, it was called "dìngcuò' ['settle(d)' & 'grindstone'] wall." 定 "dìng" < MC "dengH' < OC *adeng-s ← Siamese "diaaŋ," Daiya "tʂhəŋ," Sipsongpanna "tseŋ," "wall" 錯 "cuò" < MC tshak < OC *atshak" ? ← Siamese "tok," '"to set→sunset→west" ("tawan-tok," "sun-se"' = "west"); Longzhou "tuk," Bo'ai "tɔk," Daiya "tok," Sipsongpanna "tok" < proto-Tai *tok ǀ Sui "tok," Mak "tok," Maonan "tɔk" < proto-Kam-Sui *tɔk
    
20. Title: Wikiwand: Sima Qian
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Sima_Qian;
    Note: Sima Qian ([sɨ́mà tɕʰjɛ́n]; traditional Chinese: 司馬遷; simplified Chinese: 司马迁; pinyin: "Sīmǎ Qiān"; c. 145 – c. 86 BC) was a Chinese historian of the early Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220). He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for his "Records of the Grand Historian," a general history of China in the "Jizhuanti" style (紀傳體) covering more than two thousand years beginning from the rise of the legendary Yellow Emperor and the formation of the first Chinese polity to the reigning sovereign of Sima Qian's time, Emperor Wu of Han. As the first universal history of the world as it was known to the ancient Chinese, the "Records of the Grand Historian" served as a model for official history-writing for subsequent Chinese dynasties and the Chinese cultural sphere (Korea, Vietnam, Japan) up until the 20th century. Sima Qian's father Sima Tan (司馬談) first conceived of the ambitious project of writing a complete history of China, but only completed some preparatory sketches at the time of his death. After inheriting his father's position as court historian in the imperial court, he was determined to fulfill his father's dying wish of composing and putting together this epic work of history. However, in 99 BC, he would fall victim to the Li Ling affair for speaking out in defense of the general, who was blamed for an unsuccessful campaign against the Xiongnu. Given the choice of being executed or castrated, he chose the latter in order to finish his historical work. Although he is universally remembered for the "Records," surviving works indicate that he was also a gifted poet and prose writer, and he was instrumental in the creation of the "Taichu" calendar, which was officially promulgated in 104 BC. As his position in the imperial court was "Grand Historian" ("tàishǐ," 太史, variously translated as court historian, scribe, or astronomer/astrologer), later generations would accord him with the honorific title of "Lord Grand Historian" ("Tàishǐ Gōng," 太史公) for his monumental work, though his "magnum opus" was completed many years after his tenure as Grand Historian ended in disgrace and after his acceptance of punitive actions against him, including imprisonment, castration, and subjection to servility. He was acutely aware of the importance of his work to posterity and its relationship to his own personal suffering. In the postface of the "Records," he implicitly compared his universal history of China to the classics of his day, the "Guoyu," by Zuoqiu Ming, "Lisao," by Qu Yuan, and the "Art of War," by Sun Bin, pointing out that their authors all suffered great personal misfortunes before their lasting monumental works could come to fruition. Early life and education Sima Qian was born at Xiayang in Zuopingyi (around present-day Hancheng, Shaanxi Province) around 145 BC, though some sources give his birth year as around 135 BC. Around 136 BC, his father, Sima Tan, received an appointment to the relatively low-ranking position of "grand historian" ("tàishǐ ," 太史, alt. "grand scribe" or "grand astrologer"). The grand historian's primary duty was to formulate the yearly calendar, identifying which days were ritually auspicious or inauspicious, and present it to the emperor prior to New Year's Day. Besides these duties, the grand historian was also to travel with the emperor for important rituals and to record the daily events both at the court and within the country. By his account, by the age of ten Sima was able to "read the old writings" and was considered to be a promising scholar. Sima grew up in a Confucian environment, and Sima always regarded his historical work as an act of Confucian filial piety to his father. In 126 BC, around the age of twenty, Sima Qian began an extensive tour around China as it existed in the Han dynasty. He started his journey from the imperial capital, Chang'an (near modern Xi'an), then went south across the Yangtze River to Changsha Kingdom (modern Hunan Province), where he visited the Miluo River site where the Warring States era poet Qu Yuan was traditionally said to have drowned himself. He then went to seek the burial place of the legendary rulers Yu on Mount Kuaiji and Shun in the Jiuyi Mountains (modern Ningyuan County, Hunan). He then went north to Huaiyin (modern Huai'an, Jiangsu Province) to see the grave of Han dynasty general Han Xin, then continued north to Qufu, the hometown of Confucius, where he studied ritual and other traditional subjects. As Han court official After his travels, Sima was chosen to be a Palace Attendant in the government, whose duties were to inspect different parts of the country with Emperor Wu in 122 BC. Sima married young and had one daughter. In 110 BC, at the age of thirty-five, Sima Qian was sent westward on a military expedition against some "barbarian" tribes. That year, his father fell ill due to the distress of not being invited to attend the Imperial Feng Sacrifice. Suspecting his time was running out, he summoned his son back home to take over the historical work he had begun. Sima Tan wanted to follow the "Annals of Spring and Autumn"—the first chronicle in the history of Chinese literature. It appears that Sima Tan was only able to put together an outline of the work before he died. In the postface of the completed Shiji, there is a short essay on the six philosophical schools that is explicitly attributed to Sima Tan. Otherwise, there are only fragments of the Shiji that are speculated to be authored by Sima Tan or based on his notes. Fueled by his father's inspiration, Sima Qian spent much of the subsequent decade authoring and compiling the "Records of the Grand Historian," completing it before 91 BC, probably around 94 BC. Three years after the death of his father, Sima Qian assumed his father's previous position as "taishi." In 105 BC, Sima was among the scholars chosen to reform the calendar. As a senior imperial official, Sima was also in the position to offer counsel to the emperor on general affairs of state. The Li Ling affair In 99 BC, Sima became embroiled in the Li Ling affair, where Li Ling and Li Guangli, two military officers who led a campaign against the Xiongnu in the north, were defeated and taken captive. Emperor Wu attributed the defeat to Li Ling, with all government officials subsequently condemning him for it. Sima was the only person to defend Li Ling, who had never been his friend but whom he respected. Emperor Wu interpreted Sima's defence of Li as an attack on his brother-in-law, Li Guangli, who had also fought against the Xiongnu without much success, and sentenced Sima to death. At that time, execution could be commuted either by money or castration. Since Sima did not have enough money to atone his "crime," he chose the latter and was then thrown into prison, where he endured three years. He described his pain thus: "When you see the jailer you abjectly touch the ground with your forehead. At the mere sight of his underlings you are seized with terror ... Such ignominy can never be wiped away." Sima called his castration "the worst of all punishments." In 96 BC, on his release from prison, Sima chose to live on as a palace eunuch to complete his histories, rather than commit suicide as was expected of a gentleman-scholar who had been disgraced by being castrated. As Sima Qian himself explained in his "Letter to Ren An": "If even the lowest slave and scullion maid can bear to commit suicide, why should not one like myself be able to do what has to be done? But the reason I have not refused to bear these ills and have continued to live, dwelling in vileness and disgrace without taking my leave, is that I grieve that I have things in my heart which I have not been able to express fully, and I am shamed to think that after I am gone my writings will not be known to posterity. Too numerous to record are the men of ancient times who were rich and noble and whose names have yet vanished away. It is only those who were masterful and sure, the truly extraordinary men, who are still remembered. ... I too have ventured not to be modest but have entrusted myself to my useless writings. I have gathered up and brought together the old traditions of the world which were scattered and lost. I have examined the deeds and events of the past and investigated the principles behind their success and failure, their rise and decay, in one hundred and thirty chapters. I wished to examine into all that concerns heaven and man, to penetrate the changes of the past and present, completing all as the work of one family. But before I had finished my rough manuscript, I met with this calamity. It is because I regretted that it had not been completed that I submitted to the extreme penalty without rancor. When I have truly completed this work, I shall deposit it in the Famous Mountain. If it may be handed down to men who will appreciate it, and penetrate to the villages and great cities, then though I should suffer a thousand mutilations, what regret should I have?" “What I hope for is that after my death the question of what is just and what is unjust will finally be resolved," he said. Later years and death Upon his release from prison in 97/96 BC, Sima Qian continued to serve in the Han court as "zhongshuling" (中書令), a court archivist position reserved for eunuchs with considerable status and with higher pay than his previous position of historian. The "Letter to Ren An" was written by Sima Qian in reply to Ren An in response to the latter's involvement in Crown Prince Liu Ju's rebellion in 91 BC. This is the last record of Sima Qian in contemporary documents. The letter is a reply to a lost letter by Ren An to Sima Qian, perhaps asking Sima Qian to intercede on his behalf as Ren An was facing execution for accusations of being an opportunist and displaying equivocal loyalty to the emperor during the rebellion. In his reply, Sima Qian stated that he is a mutilated man with no influence at court. However, some ...
    
21. Title: Wikiwand: Chinese mythology
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Chinese_mythology;
    Note: Chinese mythology (simplified Chinese: 中国神话; traditional Chinese: 中國神話; pinyin: "Zhōngguó shénhuà".)is mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature in the geographic area now known as "China." Chinese mythology includes many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Chinese mythology is far from monolithic, not being an integrated system, even among just Han people. Chinese mythology is encountered in the traditions of various classes of people, geographic regions, historical periods including the present, and from various ethnic groups. China is the home of many mythological traditions, including that of Han Chinese and their Huaxia predecessors, as well as Tibetan mythology, Turkic mythology, Korean mythology, and many others. However, the study of Chinese mythology tends to focus upon material in Chinese language. Much of the mythology involves exciting stories full of fantastic people and beings, the use of magical powers, often taking place in an exotic mythological place or time. Like many mythologies, Chinese mythology has in the past been believed to be, at least in part, a factual recording of history. Along with Chinese folklore, Chinese mythology forms an important part of Chinese folk religion (Yang, An & Turner 2005, p. 4). Many stories regarding characters and events of the distant past have a double tradition: ones which present a more historicized or euhemerized version and ones which presents a more mythological version (Yang, An & Turner 2005, pp. 12–13). Many myths involve the creation and cosmology of the universe and its deities and inhabitants. Some mythology involves creation myths, the origin of things, people and culture. Some involve the origin of the Chinese state. Some myths present a chronology of prehistoric times, many of these involve a culture hero who taught people how to build houses, or cook, or write, or was the ancestor of an ethnic group or dynastic family. Mythology is intimately related to ritual. Many myths are oral associations with ritual acts, such as dances, ceremonies, and sacrifices. Mythology and religion Further information: Religion in China and Chinese folk religion There has been an extensive interaction between Chinese mythology and Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Elements of pre-Han dynasty mythology such as those in Classic of Mountains and Seas were adapted into these belief systems as they developed (in the case of Taoism), or were assimilated into Chinese culture (in the case of Buddhism). Elements from the teachings and beliefs of these systems became incorporated into Chinese mythology. For example, the Taoist belief of a spiritual paradise became incorporated into mythology as the place where immortals and deities used to dwell. Sometimes mythological and religious ideas have become widespread across China's many regions and diverse ethnic societies. In other cases, beliefs are more limited to certain social groups, for example, the veneration of white stones by the Qiang. One mythological theme that has a long history and many variations involves a shamanic world view, for example in the cases of Mongolian shamanism among the Mongols, Hmong shamanism among the Miao people, and the shamanic beliefs of the Qing dynasty from 1643 to 1912, derived from the Manchus. Politically, mythology was often used to legitimize the dynasties of China, with the founding house of a dynasty claiming a divine descent. Mythology and philosophy Further information: Chinese philosophy True mythology is distinguished from philosophical treatises and theories. Elaborations on the Wu Xing are not really part of mythology, although belief in five elements could appear. The Hundred Schools of Thought is a phrase suggesting the diversity of philosophical thought that developed during the Warring States of China. Then, and subsequently, philosophical movements had a complicated relationship with mythology. However, as far as they influence or are influenced by mythology, (Ferguson 1928, "Introduction") divides the philosophical camps into two rough halves, a Liberal group and a Conservative group. The liberal group being associated with the idea of individuality and change, for example as seen in the mythology of divination in China, such as the mythology of the dragon horse that delivered the eight "bagua" diagrams to Fu Xi, and methods of individual empowerment as seen in the "Yi Jing" ("Book of Changes"). The Liberal tendency is towards individual freedom, Daoism, and Nature. The relationship of the Conservative philosophies to mythology is seen in the legendary Nine Tripod Cauldrons, mythology about the emperors and central bureaucratic governance, Confucianism, written histories, ceremonial observances, subordination of the individual to the social groups of family and state, and a fixation on stability and enduring institutions. The distinction between the Liberal and Conservative is very general, but important in Chinese thought. Contradictions can be found in the details, however these are often traditional, such as the embrace by Confucius of the philosophical aspects of the "Yi Jing," and the back-and-forth about the Mandate of Heaven wherein one dynasty ends and another begins based according to accounts (some of heavily mythological) where the Way of Heaven results in change, but then a new ethical stable dynasty becomes established. Examples of this include the stories of Yi Yin, Tang of Shang and Jie of Xia or the similar fantastic stories around Duke of Zhou and King Zhou of Shang Mythology and ritual Mythology exists in relationship with other aspects of society and culture, such as ritual. Various rituals are explained by mythology. For example, the ritual burning of mortuary banknotes (Hell Money), lighting fireworks, and so on. Yubu Main article: Yubu A good example of the relationship of Chinese mythology and ritual is the Yubu, also known as the Steps or Paces of Yu. During the course of his activities in controlling the Great Flood, Yu was supposed to have so fatigued himself that he lost all the hair from his legs and developed a serious limp. Daoist practitioners sometimes incorporate a curiously choreographed pedal locomotion into various rituals. Mythology and practice, one explains the other: in these rituals, the sacred time of Yu merges with the sacral practice of the present. Gender studies Further information: LGBT themes in Chinese mythology Gender is a significant phenomenon in Chinese mythology. On the one hand, there are traditions about sexual reproduction, fertility/mother goddesses, and evidence by scholars (such as Jordan Paper) of a patriarchal influence over time. Tu'er Shen is an example of a gender-oriented deity. The marking of gender in Chinese is different than in English, especially in Classical Chinese, gender is not marked in the case of most nouns and pronouns, thus making gender often difficult to determine. This makes it difficult to write in, or to translate to, English. Where it is the case that specifying gender is generally obligatory, without at the same time implying or supplying some viewpoint on the gender of the subject, which was not necessarily provided in the Chinese original. The same can be true in the cases of number of proper nouns versus common nouns. In any case, much of Chinese mythology is informed by an idea of gender duality and balance, as exemplified in the idea of yin and yang. Mythology and ritual Mythology exists in relationship with other aspects of society and culture, such as ritual. Various rituals are explained by mythology. For example, the ritual burning of mortuary banknotes (Hell Money), lighting fireworks, and so on. Yubu Main article: Yubu A good example of the relationship of Chinese mythology and ritual is the Yubu, also known as the Steps or Paces of Yu. During the course of his activities in controlling the Great Flood, Yu was supposed to have so fatigued himself that he lost all the hair from his legs and developed a serious limp. Daoist practitioners sometimes incorporate a curiously choreographed pedal locomotion into various rituals. Mythology and practice, one explains the other: in these rituals, the sacred time of Yu merges with the sacral practice of the present. Gender studies Further information: LGBT themes in Chinese mythology Gender is a significant phenomenon in Chinese mythology. On the one hand, there are traditions about sexual reproduction, fertility/mother goddesses, and evidence by scholars (such as Jordan Paper) of a patriarchal influence over time. Tu'er Shen is an example of a gender-oriented deity. The marking of gender in Chinese is different than in English, especially in Classical Chinese, gender is not marked in the case of most nouns and pronouns, thus making gender often difficult to determine. This makes it difficult to write in, or to translate to, English. Where it is the case that specifying gender is generally obligatory, without at the same time implying or supplying some viewpoint on the gender of the subject, which was not necessarily provided in the Chinese original. The same can be true in the cases of number of proper nouns versus common nouns. In any case, much of Chinese mythology is informed by an idea of gender duality and balance, as exemplified in the idea of yin and yang. Cosmology Further information: Category:Locations in Chinese mythology and Chinese mythological geography Various ideas about the nature of the earth, the universe, and their relationship to each other have historically existed as either a background or a focus of mythologies. One typical view is of a square earth separated from a round sky by sky pillars (mountains, trees, or undefined). Above the sky is the realm of Heaven, often viewed of as a vast area, with many inhabitants. Often the heavenly inhabitants are thought to be of an "as above so below" nature, their lives and social arrangements being par...
    
22. Title: Legacy NFS Source: 姬颛顼 - Published information: birth-name: 姬颛顼
    Note: Published information: birth-name: 姬颛顼 Published information: male Published information: birth: 2173 BC; China Published information: death: ; China
    Page: Migrated from user-supplied source citation: urn:familysearch:source:3245312440
    
23. Title: The Chen Family Tree (Tide Lotus, Jiangmen, Guangdong)
    Page: 根据我的家谱p15
    
24. Title: Bong Lee Genealogy Record Book 24 & 25
    Author: Bong Lee Genealogy Record Book
    Publication: Name: https://www.familysearch.org/photos/artifacts/20941621;
    Note: Pages 24 & 25 - evidence of direct bloodline
    Page: Evidence of Bloodline
    
25. Title: Legacy NFS Source: 姬 顓頊 - Family genealogies: burial: 2538 BC; Shandong, China
    Author: Electronic document, 百度百科, 不詳, Google.com, Archive, 尹根亮, 620 Kalmia Ct. NW, Issaquah, Washington, USA, 98027
    Note: Family genealogies: burial: 2538 BC; Shandong, China Family genealogies: death: 2538 BC; Shandong, China
    Page: Migrated from user-supplied source citation: urn:familysearch:source:3245073547
    
26. Title: Family tree of ancient Chinese emperors
    Publication: Name: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_tree_of_ancient_Chinese_emperors;
    
27. Title: Legacy NFS Source: 姬 顓頊 - Family genealogies: burial: 2564 BC; Shandong, China
    Author: Manuscript, 尹氏宗支源流族譜, 尹永安, 族譜, Individual, 尹根亮, 620 Kalmia Ct. NW, Issaquah, Washington, USA, 98027
    Note: Family genealogies: burial: 2564 BC; Shandong, China
    Page: Migrated from user-supplied source citation: urn:familysearch:source:3245057773
    
28. Title: Shaohao
    Publication: Name: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaohao;
    
29. Title: Wikiwand: Chinese sovereign
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Chinese_sovereign;
    Note: The Chinese sovereign is the ruler of a particular period in ancient China, and later imperial China. Several titles and naming schemes have been used throughout history. Sovereign titles Emperor Main article: Emperor of China The characters "Huang" (皇 huáng "august (ruler") and "Di" (帝 dì "divine [ruler]") had been used separately and never consecutively (see Three August Ones and Five Emperors). The character was reserved for mythological rulers until the first emperor of Qin (Qin Shi Huang), who created a new title "Huangdi" (皇帝 in pinyin: "huáng dì") for himself in 221 BCE, which is commonly translated as "Emperor" in English. This title continued in use until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911. From the Han Dynasty, the title "Huangdi" also could be abbreviated to "huang" or "di." The former nobility titles "Qing" (卿), "Daifu" (大夫) and Shi (仕) became synonyms for court officials. The power of the emperor varied between emperors and dynasties, with some emperors being absolute rulers and others being figureheads with actual power lying in the hands of court factions, eunuchs, the bureaucracy or noble families. In principle, the title of emperor was transmitted from father to son via primogeniture, as endorsed by Confucianism. However, there are many exceptions to this rule. For example, because the Emperor usually had many concubines, the first born of the empress (i.e., the chief consort) is usually the heir apparent. However, Emperors could elevate another more favoured child or the child of a favourite concubine to the status of Crown Prince. Disputes over succession occurred regularly and have led to a number of civil wars. In the Qing dynasty, primogeniture was abandoned altogether, with the designated heir kept secret until after the Emperor's death. Of the San Huang Wu Di, the three first of them were called 皇 (huang, "august (ruler)") and the five last were called 帝 (di, "divine ruler"), which can translate as either emperor, demigod human, or a superhuman. This title may have been used in the Shang and Xia dynasties, though oracle bones were found from the Shang Dynasty showing the title 王 (wáng, "king"). King The king (王, wáng) was the Chinese head of state during the Zhou Dynasty. Its use during the Xia and Shang is uncertain but possible: the character has been found upon oracle bones. It was abolished under the Qin and, after that, the same term was used for (and translated as) royal princes. The title was commonly given to members of the Emperor's family and could be inherited. A poem from about 2,500 years ago said "普天之下,莫非王土.率土之賓,莫非王臣," which roughly translates as "Under the sky, nothing isn't the king's land; the people who lead the lands, no one isn't the king's subjects." Son of Heaven Main article: Son of Heaven The Son of Heaven was a title of the Emperor based on the Mandate of Heaven. The Son of Heaven is a universal emperor who rules tianxia comprising "all under heaven." The title was not interpreted literally. The monarch is a mortal chosen by Heaven, not its actual descendant. The title comes from the Mandate of Heaven, created by the monarchs of the Zhou dynasty to justify deposing the Shang dynasty. They declared that Heaven had revoked the mandate from the Shang and given it to the Zhou in retaliation for their corruption and misrule. Heaven bestowed the mandate to whoever was best fit to rule. The title held the emperor responsible for the prosperity and security of his people through the threat of losing the mandate. Unlike the Japanese emperor for example, Chinese political theory allowed for a change of dynasty as imperial families could be replaced. This is based on the concept of "Mandate of Heaven." The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the "Son of Heaven." As the only legitimate ruler, his authority extended to "All under heaven" and had neighbors only in a geographical sense. He holds a mandate to which he had a valid claim to rule over (or to lead) everyone else in the world as long as he served the people well. If the ruler became immoral, then rebellion is justified and heaven would take away that mandate and give it to another. This single most important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties regardless of social or ethnic background. This principle made it possible for dynasties founded by non-noble families such as Han Dynasty and Ming Dynasty or non-ethnic Han dynasties such as the Xianbei-led Sui dynasty, the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty and Manchu-led Qing Dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the "Mandate of Heaven." Every dynasty that self-consciously adopted this administrative practice powerfully reinforced this Sinocentric concept throughout the history of imperial China. Historians noted that this was one of the key reasons why imperial China in many ways had the most efficient system of government in ancient times. Finally, it generally was not possible for a woman to succeed to the throne and in the history of China there has only been one reigning Empress, Wu Zetian (624–705 CE) who usurped power under the Tang dynasty. How to read the titles of a Chinese sovereign All sovereigns are denoted by a string of Chinese characters. Examples in Standard Mandarin: 1. Hàn Gāo Zǔ "Liú Bāng" (漢 高祖 劉邦) 2. Táng Tài Zōng "Lǐ Shì Mín" (唐 太宗 李世民) 3. Hòu Hàn Gāo Zǔ "Liú Zhī Yuǎn" (後漢 高祖 劉知遠) 4. Hàn Guāng Wǔ "Dì Liú Xiù" (漢 光武帝 劉秀) The first character(s) are the name of the dynasty or kingdom. e.g. Hàn, Táng, Wèi and Hòu Hàn. Then come the characters of how the sovereign is commonly called, in most cases the posthumous names or the temple names. e.g. Gāo Zǔ, Tài Zōng, Wǔ Dì, Guāng Wǔ Dì. Then follow the characters of their family and given names. e.g., "Liú Bāng," "Lǐ Shì Mín," "Cáo Cāo," "Liú Zhī Yuǎn" and "Liú Xiù." In contemporary historical texts, the string including the name of dynasty and temple or posthumous names is sufficient as a clear reference to a particular sovereign. e.g., Hàn Gāo Zǔ Note that Wèi Wǔ Dì "Cáo Cāo" was never a sovereign in his own right but his son was. Thus his imperial style of Wǔ Dì was added only after his son had ascended to the throne. Such cases were common in Chinese history, i.e., the first emperor of a new dynasty often accorded posthumous imperial titles to his father or sometimes even further paternal ancestors. Tang Dynasty naming conventions All sovereigns starting from the Tang Dynasty are referred contemporarily to using the temple names. They also had posthumous names that were less used, except in traditional historical texts. The situation was reversed before Tang as posthumous names were contemporarily used. e.g., The posthumous name of Táng Tài Zōng, "Lǐ Shì Mín," was Wén Dì (文帝) If sovereigns since Tang were referenced using posthumous names, they were the last ones of their sovereignties or their reigns were short and unpopular. e.g., Táng Āi Dì "Lǐ Zhù" (唐哀帝 "李柷"), also known as Táng Zhāo Xuān Dì (唐昭宣帝), was last emperor of the Tang Dynasty reigning from 904 to 907. Hàn Guāng Wǔ Dì is equivalent to Dōng Hàn Guāng Wǔ Dì since he was the founder of the Eastern (dōng) Han Dynasty. All dōng (east)-xī (west), nán (south)-běi (north), qián (former)-hòu (later) conventions were invented only by past or present historiographers for denoting a new era of a dynasty. They were never used during that era. Self-made titles Xiang Yu styled himself, Xīchǔ Bàwáng (“西楚霸王,” lit. Hegemon-King of Western Chu). Foreign titles taken by Chinese rulers Emperor Taizong of Tang was crowned Tian Kehan 天可汗, or "heavenly Khagan," after defeating the Gokturks, (Tujue). Common naming conventions Here is a quick guide of the most common style of reference (but not a thorough explanation) in contemporary use. Using an emperor's different titles or styles is nevertheless considered correct but not as common. 1. Emperors before the Tang dynasty: use dynasty name + posthumous names. e.g., Han Wu Di 2. Emperors between Tang dynasty and Ming dynasty: use dynasty name + temple names e.g., Tang Tai Zong 3. Emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties: use era names (reign names) because most emperors had only one distinctive era name during their reign, e.g. the Kangxi Emperor (康熙 kāng xī) of Qing. The exceptions are the first two emperors of the Qing Dynasty, and the Yīngzōng Emperor (英宗) of Ming, who had two era names. However, the use of era names makes many mistake these for the names of the emperors themselves, and many scholars therefore encourage a reversed wording for Ming and Qing emperors, e.g., the Kangxi Emperor, the Qianlong Emperor, et cetera. To be more precise, and clear in English, one could use: the Kangxi era Emperor, etc. 4. Overrides rules 1 to 3: If there is a more common convention than using posthumous, temple or era names, then use it. Examples include Wu Zetian (the only female empress regnant in the Chinese history). 5. Since all legitimate rulers of China after Qin Shi Huang can be titled Emperor of China, in English they can be referred to by "Emperor of" and the name of his respective dynasty after the temple or posthumous name. e.g., Han Wudi = Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Tang Taizong = Emperor Taizong of Tang Dynasty 6. Some scholars prefer using the Wade-Giles romanization instead of the Pinyin but the above formats still hold. e.g. Han Wu Di = Wu-ti Emperor of Han Dynasty.
    
30. Title: Wikiwand: Qin dynasty
    Author: rom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Qin_dynasty;
    Note: The Qin dynasty ([tɕʰín], Chinese: 秦朝; pinyin: "Qíncháo"; Wade–Giles: "Chʻin-chʻao") was the first dynasty of Imperial China, lasting from 221 to 206 BC. Named for its heartland in Qin state (modern Gansu and Shaanxi), the dynasty was founded by Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor of Qin. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the Legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the fourth century BC, during the Warring States period. In the mid and late third century BC, the Qin state carried out a series of swift conquests, first ending the powerless Zhou dynasty and eventually conquering the other six of the Seven Warring States. Its 15 years was the shortest major dynasty in Chinese history, consisting of only two emperors, but inaugurated an imperial system that lasted from 221 BC, with interruption and adaptation, until 1912 AD. The Qin sought to create a state unified by structured centralized political power and a large military supported by a stable economy. The central government moved to undercut aristocrats and landowners to gain direct administrative control over the peasantry, who comprised the overwhelming majority of the population and labour force. This allowed ambitious projects involving three hundred thousand peasants and convicts, such as connecting walls along the northern border, eventually developing into the Great Wall of China, and a massive new national road system, as well as the city-sized Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor guarded by the life-sized Terracotta Army. The Qin introduced a range of reforms such as standardized currency, weights, measures and a uniform system of writing, which aimed to unify the state and promote commerce. Additionally, its military used the most recent weaponry, transportation and tactics, though the government was heavy-handedly bureaucratic. Han Confucians portrayed the legalistic Qin dynasty as a monolithic tyranny, notably citing a purge known as the burning of books and burying of scholars although some modern scholars dispute the veracity of these accounts. When the first emperor died in 210 BC, two of his advisers placed an heir on the throne in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the dynasty. These advisors squabbled among themselves, resulting in both of their deaths and that of the second Qin Emperor. Popular revolt broke out and the weakened empire soon fell to a Chu general, Xiang Yu, who was proclaimed Hegemon-King of Western Chu and Liu Bang, who later founded the Han dynasty. Despite its short reign, the dynasty greatly influenced the future of China, particularly the Han and its name is thought to be the origin of the European name for China. History See also: Qin (state) and Timeline of the Warring States and the Qin dynasty Origins and early development