Yakmesi King of Assyria

• Preferred Name: Yakmesi King of Assyria^{[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16]}
  
• Alternate Name: 𒄩𒅀𒀀𒉌 (romanized: "Ḫa-ia-a-ni")
  
• Gender: M
  
• Death: Y
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: Akkadian:
  
• http://familysearch.org/v1/TitleOfNobility: Monarch of Aššūrāyu (Predecessor: Ilu-Mer; Successor: Yakmeni)flourished about 2140 BC—about 2127 BC (short chronology: flourished about 2015 BC—about 2012 BC) with note: -- Wikiwand: Yakmesi -- Wikiwand: Early Period (Assyria)
  
• FSID: GQX1-4ZN
  
• Notes:

  === Life Sketch ===
  Yakmesii) was the twenty-second Assyrian monarch of the Early Period of Aššūrāyu (Assyria), according to the Assyrian King List (AKL). He is the sixth out of the ten "kings whose fathers are known." This section, in contrast to the rest of the list, was written in reverse order, beginning with Aminu and ending with Apiashal, "altogether ten kings who are ancestors," and often has been interpreted as the list of ancestors of the Amorite Šamši-Adad I (fl. c. 1809 BCE), who conquered the city-state of Aššur. The AKL also states that Yakmesi was both the son and successor of Ilu-Mer, and that he was both the predecessor and father of Yakmeni.
  
  -- Wikiwand: Yakmesi

1. Title: Livius: The Assyrian King List
   Author: Assyrian King List: list of rulers of ancient Assyria, used as a framework for the study of Mesopotamian chronology.
   Publication: Name: https://www.livius.org/sources/content/anet/564-566-the-assyrian-king-list/;
   Note: Incomplete lists of Assyrian kings have been discovered in each of Assyria's three capitals: Aššur, Dur-Šarukkin, and Nineveh. There are also two fragments. The texts of these copies are more or less consistent and goes back to one original, which was based on the list of yearly limmu-officials, who were appointed by the king and had to preside the celebration of the New Year festival. As a consequence, modern scholars tend to believe that the numbers of regnal years mentioned in the Assyrian King List are correct; however, there are minor differences between the copies. Down to the reign of Aššur-dan I, they offer identical information, and it is therefore reasonable to assume that the list is more or less reliable until his regnal years, 1178-1133. Before 1178, the three documents show divergences. Edition Jean-Jacques Glassner, "Chroniques Mésopotamiennes" (1993) (translated as "Mesopotamian Chronicles," 2004) Assyrian King List Assyrian King List [1-17] Tudija, Adamu, Janqi, Sahlamu, Harharu, Mandaru, Imsu, Harsu, Didanu, Hanu, Zuabu, Nuabu, Abazu, Belu, Azarah, Ušpija, Apiašal. ------------------------------------------ Total: 17 kings who lived in tents.note ------------------------------------------ [18-26] Aminu was the son of Ilu-kabkabu, Ila-kabkabi of Yazkur-el, Jazkur-ilu of Yakmeni, Jakmeni of Yakmesi, Jakmesi of Ilu-Mer, Ilu-Mer of Hayani, Hajanu of Samani,Samanu of Hale, Hale of Apiašal, Apiašal of Ušpia. ------------------------------------------ Total: 10 kings who were ancestors.note ------------------------------------------ [27-32] Sulili son of Aminu, Kikkija, Akija, Puzur-Aššur [I], Šalim-ahum, Ilušuma. Total: 6 kings named on bricks,note whose number of limmu-officials is unknown. ------------------------------------------ [33] Erišum [I], son of Ilušuma, [...] ruled for 30/40 years. ------------------------------------------ [34] Ikunum, son of Erishu, ruled for [...] years. ------------------------------------------ [35] Sargon [I], son of Ikunu, ruled for [...] years.note ------------------------------------------ [36] Puzur-Aššur [II], son of Sargon, ruled for [...] years. ------------------------------------------ [37] Naram-Sin, son of Puzur-Aššur, ruled for N+4 years. ------------------------------------------ [38] Erišum [II], son of Naram-Sin, ruled for [...] years. ------------------------------------------ [39] Šamši-Adad [I], sonnote of Ila-kabkabi, went to Karduniaš in the time of Naram-Sin. In the eponymy of Ibni-Adad, Šamši-Adad went up from Karduniaš. He took Ekallatum, where he stayed three years. In the eponymy of Atamar-Ištar, Šamši-Adad went up from Ekallatum. He ousted Erišum, son of Naram-Sin, from the throne and took it. He ruled for 33 years. (1813-1781) ------------------------------------------ [40] Išme-Dagan [I], son of Šamši-Adad, ruled for 40 years. ------------------------------------------ [41] Aššur-dugul, son of a nobody,note who had no title to the throne, ruled for 6 years. ------------------------------------------ [42-47] In the time of Aššur-dugul, son of a nobody, Aššur-apla-idi, Nasir-Sin, Sin-namir, Ipqi-Ištar, Adad-salulu, and Adasi, six sons of nobodies, ruled at the beginning of his brief reign. ------------------------------------------ [48] Belu-bani, son of Adasi, ruled for 10 years. ------------------------------------------ [49] Libaja, son of Belu-Bani, ruled for 17 years. ------------------------------------------ [50] Šarma-Adad [I], son of Libaja, ruled for 12 years. ------------------------------------------ [51] Iptar-Sin, son of Šarma-Adad, ruled for 12 years. ------------------------------------------ [52] Bazaja, son of Iptar-Sin, ruled for 28 years. ------------------------------------------ [53] Lullaja, son of a nobody, ruled for 6 years. ------------------------------------------ [54] Šu-Ninua, son of Bazaja, ruled for 14 years. ------------------------------------------ [55] Šarma-Adad [II], son of Šu-Ninua, ruled for 3 years. ------------------------------------------ [56] Erišum [III], son of Šu-Ninua, ruled for 13 years. ------------------------------------------ [57] Šamši-Adad [II], son of Erišum, ruled for 6 years. ------------------------------------------ [58] Išme-Dagan [II], son of Šamši-Adad, ruled for 16 years. ------------------------------------------ [59] Šamši-Adad [III], son of [another] Išme-Dagan, brother of Šarma-Adad [II], son of Šu-Ninua, ruled for 16 years. ------------------------------------------ [60] Aššur-nirari [I], son of Išme-Dagan, ruled for 26 years. ------------------------------------------ [61] Puzur-Aššur [III], son of Aššur-nirari, ruled for 24/14 years. ------------------------------------------ [62] Enlil-nasir [I], son of Puzur-Aššur, ruled for 13 years. ------------------------------------------ [63] Nur-ili, son of Enlil-nasir, ruled for 12 years. ------------------------------------------ [64] Aššur-šaduni, son of Nur-ili, ruled for 1 month. ------------------------------------------ [65] Aššur-rabi [I], son of Enlil-nasir, ousted him, seized the throne and ruled for [...] years. ------------------------------------------ [66] Aššur-nadin-ahhe [I], son of Aššur-rabi, ruled for [...] years. ------------------------------------------ [67] Enlil-nasir [II], his brother, ousted him and ruled for 6 years (1420-1415).note ------------------------------------------ [68] Aššur-nirari [II], son of Enlil-nasir, ruled for 7 years (1414-1408). ------------------------------------------ [69] Aššur-bêl-nišešu, son of Aššur-nirari, ruled for 9 years (1407-1399). ------------------------------------------ [70] Aššur-rem-nišešu, son of Aššur-bêl-nišešu, ruled for 8 years (1398-1391). ------------------------------------------ [71] Aššur-nadin-ahhe [II], son of Aššur-rem-nišešu, ruled for 10 years (1390-1381). ------------------------------------------ [72] Eriba-Adad [I], son of Aššur-bêl-nišešu, ruled for 27 years (1380-1354). ------------------------------------------ [73] Aššur-uballit [I], son of Eriba-Adad, ruled for 36 years (1353-1318). ------------------------------------------ [74] Enlil-nirari, son of Aššur-uballit, ruled for 10 years (1317-1308). ------------------------------------------ [75] Arik-den-ili, son of Enlil-nirari, ruled for 12 years (1307-1296). ------------------------------------------ [76] Adad-nirari [I], son of Arik-den-ili, ruled for 32 years (1295-1264). ------------------------------------------ [77] Šalmaneser [I], son of Adad-nirari, ruled for 30 years (1263-1234). ------------------------------------------ [78] Tukulti-ninurta [I], son of Šalmaneser, ruled for 37 years (1233-1197). ------------------------------------------ [79] During the lifetime of Tukulti-ninurta, Aššur-nadin-apli, his son, seized the throne and ruled for 4 years (1196-1193). ------------------------------------------ [80] Aššur-nirari [III], son of Aššur-nadin-apli, ruled for 6 years (1192-1187). ------------------------------------------ [81] Enlil-kudurri-usur, son of Tukulti-ninurta, ruled for 5 years (1186-1182). ------------------------------------------ [82] Ninurta-apil-Ekur, son of Ila-Hadda, a descendant of Eriba-Adad, went to Karduniaš. He came up from Karduniaš, seized the throne and ruled for 3 years (1181-1179). ------------------------------------------ [83] Aššur-dan [I], son of Aššur-nadin-apli, ruled for 46 years (1178-1133). ------------------------------------------ [84] Ninurta-tukulti-Aššur, son of Aššur-dan, briefly.note ------------------------------------------ [85] Mutakkil-Nusku, his brother, fought him and took him to Karduniaš. Mutakkil-Nusku held the throne briefly, then died. ------------------------------------------ [86] Aššur-reš-iši [I], son of Mutakkil-Nusku, ruled for 18 years (1132-1115). ------------------------------------------ [87] Tiglath-pileser [I], son of Aššur-reš-iši, ruled for 39 years (1114-1076). ------------------------------------------ [88] Ašarid-apil-Ekur, son of Tiglath-pileser, ruled for 2 years (1075-1074). ------------------------------------------ [89] Aššur-bêl-kala, son of Tiglath-pileser, ruled for 18 years (1073-1056). ------------------------------------------ [90] Eriba-Adad [II], son of Aššur-bêl-kala, ruled for 2 years (1055-1054). ------------------------------------------ [91] Šamši-Adad [IV], son of Tiglath-pileser, came up from Karduniaš. He ousted Eriba-Adad, son of Aššur-bêl-kala, seized the throne and ruled for 4 years (1053-1050). ------------------------------------------ [92] Aššurnasirpal [I], son of Šamši-Adad, ruled for 19 years (1049-1031). ------------------------------------------ [93] Šalmaneser [II], son of Aššurnasirpal, ruled for 12 years (1030-1019). ------------------------------------------ [94] Aššur-nirari [IV], son of Šalmaneser, ruled for 6 years (1018-1013). ------------------------------------------ [95] Aššur-rabi [II], son of Aššurnasirpal, ruled for 41 years (1012-972). ------------------------------------------ [96] Aššur-reš-iši [II], son of Aššur-rabi, ruled for 5 years (971-967). ------------------------------------------ [97] Tiglath-pileser [II], son of Aššur-reš-iši, ruled for 32 years (966-935). ------------------------------------------ [98] Aššur-dan [II], son of Tiglath-pileser, ruled for 23 years (934-912). ------------------------------------------ [99] Adad-nirari [II], son of Aššur-dan, ruled for 21 years (911-891). ------------------------------------------ [100] Tukulti-Ninurta [II], son of Adad-nirari, ruled for 7 years (890-884). ------------------------------------------ [101] Aššurnasirpal [II], son of Tukulti-Ninurta, ruled for 25 years (883-859). ------------------------------------------ [102] Šalmaneser [III], son of Aššurnasirpal, ruled for 35 years (858-824). ------------------------------------------ [103] Šamši-Adad [V], son of Šalmaneser, ruled for 13 years (823-811). ------------------------------------------ [104] Adad-nirari [III], son of Šamši-Adad, rul..
   
2. Title: Wikiwand: List of Assyrian kings
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_Assyrian_kings;
   Note: The King of Assyria (Akkadian: "šar māt Aššur"), called the Governor or Viceroy of Assyria (Akkadian: "Išši’ak Aššur") in the Early and Old periods, was the ruler of the ancient Mesopotamian kingdom of Assyria, which existed from approximately the 26th century BC to the 7th century BC. All modern lists of Assyrian kings generally follow the Assyrian King List, a list kept and developed by the ancient Assyrians themselves over the course of several centuries. Though some parts of the list are probably fictional, the list accords well with Hittite, Babylonian and ancient Egyptian king lists and with the archaeological record, and is generally considered reliable for the age. The ancient Assyrians did not believe that their king was divine himself, but saw their ruler as the vicar of their principal deity, Ashur, and as his chief representative on Earth. In their worldview, Assyria represented a place of order while lands not governed by the Assyrian king (and by extension, the god Ashur) were seen as places of chaos and disorder. As such it was seen as the king's duty to expand the borders of Assyria and bring order and civilization to lands perceived as uncivilized. Originally vassals of more powerful empires, the early Assyrian kings used the title governor or viceroy ("Išši’ak"), which was retained as the ruling title after Assyria gained independence due to the title of king ("šar") being applied to the god Ashur. Later Assyrian kings, beginning with Ashur-uballit I (14th century BC) adopted the title "šar māt Aššur" as their empire expanded and later also adopted more boastful titles such as "king of Sumer and Akkad," "king of the Universe" and "king of the Four Corners of the World," often to assert their control over all of Mesopotamia. The line of Assyrian kings ended with the defeat of Assyria's final king Ashur-uballit II by the Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Median Empire in 609 BC, after which Assyria disappeared as an independent political unit, never to rise again. The Assyrian people survived and remain as an ethnic, linguistic, religious (Christians since the 1st–3rd centuries AD) and cultural minority in the Assyrian homeland and elsewhere to this day. Sources Incomplete king lists have been recovered from all three of the major ancient Assyrian capitals (Aššur, Dur-Šarukkin and Nineveh). The three lists are largely consistent with each other, all originally copies of a single original list, and are based on the yearly appointments of "limmu"-officials (the eponymous officials for each year, appointed by the king to preside over the celebration of the New Year festival). Because of the consistency between the list and the method through which it was created, modern scholars usually accept the regnal years mentioned as more or less correct. There are some differences between the copies of the list, notably in that they offer somewhat diverging regnal years before the reign of king Ashur-dan I of the Middle Assyrian Empire (reign beginning in 1178 BC). After 1178 BC, the lists are identical in their contents. The king lists mostly accord well with Hittite, Babylonian and ancient Egyptian king lists and with the archaeological record, and are generally considered reliable for the age. It is however clear that parts of the list are fictional, as some known kings are not found on the list and other listed kings are not independently verified. Originally it was assumed that the list was first written in the time of Shamshi-Adad I circa 1800 BC but it now is considered to date from much later, probably from the time of Ashurnasirpal I (1050–1031 BC). The oldest of the surviving king-lists, List A (8th century BC) stops at Tiglath-Pileser II (c. 967–935 BC) and the youngest, List C, stops at Shalmaneser V (727–722 BC). One problem that arises with the Assyrian King List is that the creation of the list may have been more motivated by political interest than actual chronological and historical accuracy. In times of civil strife and confusion, the list still adheres to a single royal line of descent, probably ignoring rival claimants to the throne. Additionally, there are some known inconsistencies between the list and actual inscriptions by Assyrian kings, often regarding dynastic relationships. For instance, Ashur-nirari II is stated by the list to be the son of his predecessor Enlil-Nasir II, but from inscriptions it is known that he was actually the son of Ashur-rabi I and brother of Enlil-Nasir. Titles See also: Akkadian royal titulary Assyrian royal titles typically followed trends that began under the Akkadian Empire (c. 2334–2154 BC), the Mesopotamian civilization that preceded the later kingdoms of Assyria and Babylon. When the Mesopotamian central government under the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112–2004 BC) collapsed and polities that had once been vassals to Ur became independent, many of the new sovereign rulers refrained from taking the title of king ("šar"), instead applying that title to their principal deities (in the case of Assyria, Ashur). For this reason, most of the Assyrian kings of the Old (c. 2025–1378 BC) and Middle Assyrian period (c. 1392–934 BC) used the title "Išši’ak Aššur," translating to "governor of Assyria." In contrast to the titles employed by the Babylonian kings in the south, which typically focused on the protective role and the piety of the king, Assyrian royal inscriptions tend to glorify the strength and power of the king. Assyrian titularies usually also often emphasize the royal genealogy of the king, something Babylonian titularies do not, and also drive home the king's moral and physical qualities while downplaying his role in the judicial system. Assyrian epithets about royal lineage vary in how far they stretch back, most often simply discussing lineage in terms of "son of ..." or "brother of ...". Some cases display lineage stretching back much further, Shamash-shuma-ukin (r. 667–648 BC) describes himself as a "descendant of Sargon II", his great-grandfather. More extremely, Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) calls himself a "descendant of the eternal seed of Bel-bani," a king who would have lived more than a thousand years before him. Assyrian royal titularies were changed often, depending on where the titles were to be displayed, the titles of the same Assyrian king would have been different in their home country of Assyria and in conquered regions. Those Neo-Assyrian kings who controlled the city of Babylon used a "hybrid" titulary of sorts in the south, combining aspects of the Assyrian and Babylonian tradition, similar to how the traditional Babylonian deities were promoted in the south alongside the Assyrian main deity of Ashur. The assumption of many traditional southern titles, including the ancient "king of Sumer and Akkad" and the boastful "king of the Universe" and "king of the Four Corners of the World," by the Assyrian kings served to legitimize their rule and assert their control over Babylon and lower Mesopotamia. Epithets like "chosen by the god Marduk and the goddess Sarpanit" and "favorite of the god Ashur and the goddess Mullissu," both assumed by Esarhaddon, illustrate that he was both Assyrian (Ashur and Mullissu, the main pair of Assyrian deities) and a legitimate ruler over Babylon (Marduk and Sarpanit, the main pair of Babylonian deities).
   
3. Title: Wikiwand: Assyrian people
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Assyrian_people;
   Note: Assyrians (Syriac: "ܐܬܘܪ̈ܝܐ‎," "ʾĀṯōrāyē"; or "ܣܘܪ̈ܝܐ," "Sūrāyē") are an ethnic group indigenous to Mesopotamia, a region in the Middle East. Some self-identify as Syriacs, Arameans, and Chaldeans. Speakers of Neo-Aramaic branch of Semitic languages as well as the primary languages in their countries of residence, modern Assyrians are Syriac Christians who claim descent from Assyria, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, dating back to 2500 BC in ancient Mesopotamia. The tribal areas that form the Assyrian homeland are parts of present-day northern Iraq (Nineveh Plains and Dohuk Governorate), southeastern Turkey (Hakkari and Tur Abdin), northwestern Iran (Urmia) and, more recently, northeastern Syria (Al-Hasakah Governorate). The majority have migrated to other regions of the world, including North America, the Levant, Australia, Europe, Russia and the Caucasus during the past century. Emigration was triggered by events such as the Massacres of Diyarbakır, the Assyrian Genocide (concurrent with the Armenian and Greek Genocides) during World War I by the Ottoman Empire and allied Kurdish tribes, the Simele Massacre in Iraq in 1933, the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Arab Nationalist Ba'athist policies in Iraq and Syria, the rise of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and its takeover of most of the Nineveh Plains. Assyrians are predominantly Christian, mostly adhering to the East and West Syrian liturgical rites of Christianity. The churches that constitute the East Syrian rite include the Assyrian Church of the East, Ancient Church of the East, and Chaldean Catholic Church, whereas the churches of the West Syrian rite are the Syriac Orthodox Church and Syriac Catholic Church. Both rites use Classical Syriac as their liturgical language. Most recently, the post-2003 Iraq War and the Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011, have displaced much of the remaining Assyrian community from their homeland as a result of ethnic and religious persecution at the hands of Islamic extremists. Of the one million or more Iraqis reported by the United Nations to have fled Iraq since the occupation, nearly 40% were Assyrians even though Assyrians accounted for only around 3% of the pre-war Iraqi demography. According to a 2013 report by a Chaldean Syriac Assyrian Popular Council official, it is estimated that only 300,000 Assyrians remain in Iraq. Because of the emergence of ISIL and the taking over of much of the Assyrian homeland by the terror group, another major wave of Assyrian displacement has taken place. ISIL was driven out from the Assyrian villages in the Khabour River Valley and the areas surrounding the city of Al-Hasakah in Syria by 2015, and from the Nineveh plains in Iraq by 2017. In northern Syria, Assyrian groups have been taking part both politically and militarily in the Kurdish-dominated but multi-ethnic Syrian Democratic Forces (see Khabour Guards and Sutoro) and Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria. History Main article: History of the Assyrian people Pre-Christian history Main articles: Achaemenid Empire, Achaemenid Assyria, and Neo-Assyrian Empire Assyria is the homeland of the Assyrian people; it is located in the ancient Near East. In prehistoric times, the region that was to become known as Assyria (and Subartu) was home to Neanderthals such as the remains of those which have been found at the Shanidar Cave. The earliest Neolithic sites in Assyria belonged to the Jarmo culture c. 7100 BC and Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture, c. 6000 BC. The history of Assyria begins with the formation of the city of Assur perhaps as early as the 25th century BC. The Assyrian king list records kings dating from the 25th century BC onwards, the earliest being Tudiya, who was a contemporary of Ibrium of Ebla. However, many of these early kings would have been local rulers, and from the late 24th century BC to the early 22nd century BC, they were usually subjects of the Akkadian Empire. During the early Bronze Age period, Sargon of Akkad united all the native Semitic-speaking peoples (including the Assyrians) and the Sumerians of Mesopotamia under the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC). The cities of Assur and Nineveh (modern day Mosul), which was the oldest and largest city of the ancient Assyrian Empire, together with a number of other towns and cities, existed as early as the 25th century BC, although they appear to have been Sumerian-ruled administrative centres at this time, rather than independent states. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) population. In the traditions of the Assyrian Church of the East, they are descended from Abraham's grandson (Dedan son of Jokshan), progenitor of the ancient Assyrians. However, there is no historical basis for the biblical assertion whatsoever; there is no mention in Assyrian records (which date as far back as the 25th century BC). Ashur-uballit I overthrew the Mitanni c. 1365 BC, and the Assyrians benefited from this development by taking control of the eastern portion of Mitanni territory, and later also annexing Hittite, Babylonian, Amorite and Hurrian territories. The Assyrian people, after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 609 BC were under the control of the Neo-Babylonian and later the Persian Empire, which consumed the entire Neo-Babylonian or "Chaldean" Empire in 539 BC. Assyrians became front line soldiers for the Persian Empire under Xerxes I, playing a major role in the Battle of Marathon under Darius I in 490 BC. Herodotus, whose Histories are the main source of information about that battle, makes no mention of Assyrians in connection with it. Despite the influx of foreign elements, the presence of Assyrians is confirmed by the worship of the god Ashur; references to the name survive into the 3rd century AD. The Greeks, Parthians, and Romans had a rather low-level of integration with the local population in Mesopotamia, which allowed their cultures to survive. The kingdoms of Osroene, Adiabene, Hatra and Assur, which were under Parthian overlordship, had an Assyrian identity. Language Emerging in Sumer c. 3500 BC, cuneiform writing began as a system of pictograms. Around 3000 BC, the pictorial representations became simplified and more abstract as the number of characters in use grew smaller. The original Sumerian script was adapted for the writing of the Akkadian (Babylonian and Assyrian) and Hittite languages. The Kültepe texts, which were written in Old Assyrian, preserve the earliest known traces of the Hittite language, and the earliest attestation of any Indo-European language, dated to the 20th century BC. Most of the archaeological evidence is typical of Anatolia rather than of Assyria, but the use of both cuneiform and the dialect is the best indication of Assyrian presence. To date, over 20,000 cuneiform tablets have been recovered from the site. From 1700 BC and onward, the Sumerian language was preserved by the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians only as a liturgical and classical language for religious, artistic and scholarly purposes. The Akkadian language, with its main dialects Assyrian and Babylonian, once the lingua franca of the Ancient Near East, began to decline during the Neo-Assyrian Empire around the 8th century BC, being marginalized by Old Aramaic during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III. By the Hellenistic period, the language was largely confined to scholars and priests working in temples in Assyria and Babylonia. Early Christian period Further information: Syriac Christianity, History of Eastern Christianity, and Asōristān From the 1st century BC, Assyria was the theatre of the protracted Roman–Persian Wars. Much of the region would become the Roman province of Assyria from 116 to 118 AD following the conquests of Trajan, but after a Parthian-inspired Assyrian rebellion, the new emperor Hadrian withdrew from the short-lived Roman province of Assyria and its neighboring provinces in 118 AD. Following a successful campaign in 197–198, Severus converted the kingdom of Osroene, centerd on Edessa, into a frontier Roman province. Roman influence in the area came to an end under Jovian in 363, who abandoned the region after concluding a hasty peace agreement with the Sassanians. From the later 2nd century, the Roman Senate included several notable Assyrians, including Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus and Avidius Cassius. The Assyrians were Christianized in the first to third centuries in Roman Syria and Roman Assyria. The population of the Sasanian province of Asōristān was a mixed one, composed of Assyrians, Arameans in the far south and the western deserts, and Persians. The Greek element in the cities, still strong during the Parthian Empire, ceased to be ethnically distinct in Sasanian times. The majority of the population were Eastern Aramaic speakers. Along with the Arameans, Armenians, Greeks, and Nabataeans, the Assyrians were among the first people to convert to Christianity and spread Eastern Christianity to the Far East in spite of becoming, from the 8th century, a minority religion in their homeland following the Muslim conquest of Persia. In 410, the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, the capital of the Sasanian Empire, organized the Christians within that empire into what became known as the Church of the East. Its head was declared to be the bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, who in the acts of the council was referred to as the Grand or Major Metropolitan, and who soon afterward was called the Catholicos of the East. Later, the title of Patriarch also was used. Dioceses were organised into provinces, each of which was under the authority of a metropolitan bishop. Six such provinces were instituted in 410. Another council held in 424 declared that the Catholicos of the East was independent of "western" ecclesiastical authorities (those of the Roman Empire). Soon afterwards, Christians in the Roman Empire were divided by their attitude rega..
   
4. Title: Wikiwand: Apiashal
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Apiashal;
   Note: Apiashal (Akkadian: 𒀀𒉿𒀀𒊩, romanized: "A-pi-a-ŠAL") was an early monarch (fl. c. 2205 BCE — c. 2192 BCE) of the Early Period of Aššūrāyu (Assyria) according to the Assyrian King List (AKL). He is listed in the last section of the "altogether seventeen kings, tent dwellers." This section shows marked similarities to the ancestors of the First Babylonian dynasty. The AKL also states that Apiashal was preceded by his father Ushpia (fl. c. 2218 BCE — c. 2205 BCE). The AKL also states that Apiashal was succeeded by his son Hale (fl. c. 2192 BCE — c. 2179 BCE). Apiashal also is listed within a section of the AKL as the first out of the ten, "kings whose fathers are known.” This section (which in contrast to the rest of the list) had been written in reverse order—beginning with Aminu (fl. c. 2088 BCE — c. 2075 BCE) and ending with Apiashal, "altogether ten kings who are ancestors"—has often been interpreted as the list of ancestors of the Amorite Šamši-Adad I (fl. c. 1754 BCE — c. 1721 BCE) who had conquered the city-state of Aššur. In keeping with this assumption, scholars have inferred that the original form of the Assyrian King List was written (among other things) as an, "attempt to justify that Šamši-Adad I was a legitimate ruler of the city-state Aššur and to obscure his non-Assyrian antecedents by incorporating his ancestors into a native Assyrian genealogy." However, this interpretation has not been accepted universally; the "Cambridge Ancient History" rejected this interpretation and instead interpreted the section as being that of the ancestors of Sulili (fl. c. 2075 BCE — c. 2062 BCE). Very little is known otherwise about Apiashal's reign.
   
5. Title: Wikiwand: Yakmeni
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Yakmeni;
   Note: Yakmeni (Akkadian: "𒅀𒀝𒈨𒉌," romanized: "Ia-ak-me-ni") was the twenty-third Assyrian monarch of the Early Period of "Aššūrāyu" ("Assyria") according to the "Assyrian King List" (AKL). Yakmeni is listed in the AKL as the seventh out of the ten, "kings whose fathers are known." This section, in contrast to the rest of the list, was written in reverse order, beginning with Aminu and ending with "Apiashal," "altogether ten kings who are ancestors," and often has been interpreted as the list of ancestors of the Amorite "Šamši-Adad I" (fl. c. 1809 BCE), who conquered the city-state of "Aššur." The AKL also states that Yakmeni was the son and successor of Yakmesi and that Yakmeni was the predecessor and father of Yazkur-el.
   
6. Title: Wikiwand: Ilu-Mer
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Ilu-Mer;
   Note: Ilu-Mer (Akkadian: "𒀭𒈨𒅕," romanized: "Ilu-Me-Er") was the twenty-first Assyrian monarch of the Early Period of Aššūrāyu (Assyria) according to the "Assyrian King List" (AKL). Ilu-Mer is listed within a section of the AKL as the fifth out of the ten "kings whose fathers are known." This section, in contrast to the rest of the list, was written in reverse order—beginning with Aminu and ending with Apiashal, "altogether ten kings who are ancestors"—and often has been interpreted as the list of ancestors of the Amorite Šamši-Adad I (fl. c. 1809 BCE) who conquered the city-state of Aššur. The AKL also states that Ilu-Mer was the son and successor of Hayani. Additionally, the AKL states that Ilu-Mer was both the predecessor and father of Yakmesi.
   
7. Title: Wikiwand: Early Period (Assyria)
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Early_Period_(Assyria);
   Note: The Early Period refers to the history of Assyrian civilization of Mesopotamia between 2500 BCE and 2025 BCE. It is the first of the four periods into which the history of the Assyrian civilisation is traditionally divided. The other periods are the Old Assyrian Empire (2025 BCE - 1378 BCE), the Middle Assyrian Empire (1392 BCE - 934 BCE) and the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911 BCE - 609 BCE). The main settlement of Assyria in the Early Period was Assur, a city-state. The people of Assur in the Early Period spoke an East Semitic language. Etymology Assyria may refer to a geographic area or to the area ruled under the Old Assyrian Empire. The word "Assyria" comes from its first capital city, Assur ("Aššūrāyu"). Assur was named after its patron deity, Ashur and prior to its rise to a city-state was known as "Azuhinum." Origins The rise of Assur to the status of city-state was preceded by its being an outpost for Sumerian or Akkadian rulers. The earliest known king of the Assyrian Early Period according to the Assyrian King List was Tudiya who ruled from about 2450 BCE to about 2400 BCE. Tudiya was succeeded by Adamu. Following Adamu, the Assyrian King List gives a further thirteen rulers prior to Assur reaching the status of city-state. Nothing concrete is yet known of these kings who likely were nomadic. At about 2300 BCE, Assyria was ruled by Sargon of Akkad. He united all the Akkadian- and Sumerian-speaking peoples of Mesopotamia under the Akkadian Empire (about 2334 BCE to 2154 BCE). Geography At about 2300 BCE, Assyria was ruled by Sargon of Akkad. He united all the Akkadian- and Sumerian-speaking peoples of Mesopotamia under the Akkadian Empire (about 2334 BCE to 2154 BCE). Geography Subartu Main article: Subartu Subartu is a place name associated with the Assyrian Early Period. In the Akkadian language it appears as "Šubartum," "Subartumina" and "Šú-ba-ri." In the Assyrian cuneiform script it appears as "mât Šubarri" and in the Sumerian language, it appears as "Subir," "Subar" and "Šubur." The precise location of Subartu is unknown but it was likely in Upper Mesopotamia at the upper reaches of the Tigris river. It represented a northern limit of the Akkadian Empire (about 2334 BCE to 2154 BCE). In early texts, Subartu is mentioned as a mountainous, agrarian area, frequently raided for slaves. It is written that Eannatum, the Sumerian king of Lagash, attacked Subartu. Subartu is listed as one of the provinces of the empire of Lugal-Anne-Mundu, king of the Adab city-state in Sumer. In the time of the Akkadian Empire, Sargon of Akkad (about 2340 BCE to 2284 BCE) attacked Subartu. Sargon's grandson, Naram-Sin of Akkad (about 2254 BCE to 2218 BCE) was a ruler of Subartu. Ishbi-Erra (about 1953 BCE to 1921 BCE) was a later ruler of Subartu. Assur Main article: Assur There is archaeological evidence that the site of Assur was occupied by about 2400 BCE. This places it in the Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia. Assur's very oldest remains were discovered in the foundations of the Ishtar temple and at the "old palace." Language The earliest record of language in Assyria refers to the people of the Akkadian Empire speaking a Semitic language. The people of the Akkadian Empire first appeared in Mesopotamia around 3500 BCE - 3000 BCE. Akkadian language names are recorded from about 2890 BCE. The Akkadians intermingled with the local Sumerian population. In the Sumerian mythological epic "Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta," Subartu is noted as a land where "languages are confused." A culturally close, bilingual population existed by 2800 BCE. There was lexical borrowing and syntactic, morphological and phonological convergence creating a sprachbund (a language "crossroads") between about 3000 BCE and 2000 BCE. Gradually, the Akkadian language replaced the Sumerian language as the spoken language of Mesopotamia. Sumerian cuneiform was still used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language throughout Mesopotamia. Akkadian cuneiform was also used in these ways. Religion Main article: Ashur (god) Assyria of the Early Period was polytheistic. The King of the Gods was Ashur. The symbols of Ashur included: a winged disc with horns, enclosing four circles revolving round a middle circle and rippling rays falling down from either side of the disc; a circle or wheel, suspended from wings, and enclosing a warrior drawing his bow to discharge an arrow; or the same circle with the warrior's bow carried in his left hand, while the right hand is uplifted as if to bless his worshipers. The Assyrian standard (representing the world pillar) had a disc mounted on a horned bull's head. The upper part of the disc is occupied by a warrior, whose head, part of his bow, and the point of his arrow protrude from the circle. Rippling water rays are V-shaped. Two bulls, treading river-like rays, are between the arms of the Vs. There is also a lion's head and a man's head with gaping mouths. They symbolize storms, the destroying power of the sun, or the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Jastrow regards the winged disc as "the purer and more genuine symbol of Ashur as a solar deity." He calls it "a sun disc with protruding rays." He says, "to this symbol the warrior with the bow and arrow was added; a despiritualization that reflects the martial spirit of the Assyrian empire." Classical literature and mythology Classical Greek and Roman writers such as Julius Africanus, Marcus Velleius Paterculus, and Diodorus Siculus dated the founding of Assyria to a time between about 2284 BCE and about 2057 BCE. Belus Main article: Belus (Assyrian) Belus (or "Belos") in classical Greek or Latin texts and in later works based upon them refers to an ancient, mythical Assyrian king. The Babylonian deity Bel, and Marduk, the patron deity of the city of Babylon, maybe euhemerisation of this Assyrian king. Belus most commonly appears as the father of Ninus. Ninus most commonly appears as the first known Assyrian king. Ctesias provides no information about Ninus' parentage. Herodotus lists Ninus among the ancestors of the Heraclid dynasty of Lydia. Belus is made a grandson of Heracles. A fragment of text by Castor of Rhodes which is preserved only in the Armenian translation of "Eusebius of Caesarea," makes Belus the king of Assyria at the time when Zeus and the other gods are fighting the Titans and the giants. Castor says Belus was considered a deity after his death, but he does not know how many years Belus reigned. Alexander Hislop suggested in "The Two Babylons" that Belus was a conqueror and the father of Ninus. He suggests that after Ninus' death, Semiramis, Belus' wife called Ninus a Sun God, Cush (Belus) the Lord God, herself the Mother Goddess and her son, Tammuz, the God of Love. This was an effort to maintain political control as her newborn son's regent. In some versions of the tale of Adonis, Belus is Adonis' grandfather. In "Metamorphoses," (4.212f) Ovid speaks of Orchamus, king of the Achaemenid cities of Persia as the seventh in line from the founder, Belus. But no other extant sources mention either Orchamus or his daughters, Leucothoe and Clytie. In "Dionysiaca," (18.5f), Nonnus speaks of "Staphylus," king of Assyria and grandson of Belus, and "Botrys," Staphylus' son. Botrys entertains Dionysus. Staphylus and Botrys are not found in other texts. Diodorus Siculus (6.5.1) speaks of the Roman god, Picus as the king of Italy. Picus is normally the son of Saturn. Siculus introduces Picus as the brother of Ninus. Picus and Ninus also appear in John of Nikiû's "Chronicle" (6.2f). It tells of Cronus, the first king of Assyria and Persia. He married an Assyrian woman named Rhea. Her sons were Picus (also called "Zeus") and Ninus. Cronus removed to Italy. He was slain by Picus (Zeus). Picus (Zeus) then had a child called "Belus" by his own sister. Picus (Zeus) disappeared. Belus became the king of Assyria and the god, Faunus. Upon the death of Belus, his uncle, Ninus became king. Ninus then married his own mother, Rhea, who then called "Semiramis." Ninus Main article: Ninus According to Greek historians writing in the Hellenistic period and later, Ninus (Greek: "Νίνος)," was the founder of Nineveh ("Νίνου πόλις," "city of Ninus" in Greek), capital of Assyria. He does not appear on the Assyrian King List or in any cuneiform literature. Assyrian King List Main article: Assyrian King List There are three extant cuneiform tablet versions and two fragments of the Assyrian King List: one from Khorsabad (a village in northern Iraq); one published in 1927 by Essad Nassouhi, the "Nassouhi"; and a third, the "SDAS," kept at the Seventh-day Adventist seminary in Washington D.C. The lists date to the early first millennium BCE. The oldest, "List A," dates to the eighth century BCE. It ends at Tiglath-Pileser II ( about 967 BCE to 935 BCE). The most recent is "List C". It finishes at Shalmaneser V (727 BCE to 722 BCE). Before Erishum I, the list gives no regnal lengths. Kings who lived in tents The earliest kings of Assyria, who are recorded as "kings who lived in tents," were independent semi-nomadic pastoral rulers who governed as an oligarchy. Tudiya (or Tudia) (about 2450 BCE to 2400 BCE) is the first king in the Assyrian King List. His existence is unconfirmed archaeologically and uncorroborated by any other source. Tudiya was succeeded by Adamu, Yangi, Suhlamu, Harharu, Mandaru, Imsu, Harsu, Didanu, Hana, Zuabu, Nuabu, Abazu, Belu and Azarah. Nothing concrete is yet known about these names. A much later Akkadian language tablet that lists the ancestral lineage of Hammurabi of Babylon copies the same names from Tudiya through Nuabu. However, the list is corrupted. For instance, Tudiya's name is joined with Adamu's to make "Tubtiyamutu." Akkadian Empire Further information: Akkadian Empire Assyria fell to the rule of the Akkadian Empire (about 2334 BCE to 2154 BCE). The Akkadian Empire ruled from centra..
   
8. Title: "Assyrian Royal Inscriptions: From the beginning to Ashur-resha-ishi I," by Albert Kirk Grayson
   Author: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1972
   Publication: Name: https://books.google.com/books?id=psmYIYJZCnoC&pg=PA1&dq=Tudiya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjo_--KvunnAhWDgXIEHWC5Cn8Q6AEwAHoECAMQAg#v=snippet&q=Yakmesi&f=false;
   Note: English translation of Assyrian royal inscriptions.
   
9. Title: Wikiwand: Shamshi-Adad I
   Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Shamshi-Adad_I;
   Note: Shamshi-Adad I (Akkadian: Šamši-Adad I; Amorite: "Shamshi-Addu I"; fl. c. 1809 BC – c. 1776 BC by the middle chronology) was an Amorite who had conquered lands across much of Syria, Anatolia, and Upper Mesopotamia for the Old Assyrian Empire. Rise Shamshi-Adad I inherited the throne in Ekallatum from Ila-kabkabu (fl. c. 1836 BC – c. 1833 BC). Ila-kabkabu is mentioned as the father of Shamshi-Adad I in the "Assyrian King List" (AKL); a similar name (not necessarily the same figure) is listed in the preceding section of the AKL among the "kings whose fathers are known." However, Shamshi-Adad I did not inherit the Assyrian throne from his father, but was instead a conqueror. Ila-kabkabu had been an Amorite king not of Assur (Aššur) (in Assyria) but of Ekallatum. According to the "Mari Eponyms Chronicle," Ila-kabkabu seized Shuprum (c. 1790 BC), then Shamshi-Adad I "entered his father's house" (Shamshi-Adad I succeeded Ila-kabkabu as the king of Ekallatum, in the following year.) Šamši-Adad I had been forced to flee to Babylon (c. 1823 BC) while Narām-Sîn of Eshnunna (fl. c. 1850 BC – c. 1816 BC) had attacked Ekallatum. Shamshi-Adad I had remained in exile until the death of Naram-Sin of Eshnunna (c. 1816 BC.) The AKL records that Shamshi-Adad I "went away to Babylonia in the time of Naram-Sin." Shamshi-Adad I did not return until retaking Ekallatum, pausing for some time, and then overthrowing King Erishum II of Assur (fl. c. 1815 BC – c. 1809 BC) Shamshi-Adad I conquered Assur and emerged as the first Amorite king of Assyria (c. 1808 BC) Shamshi-Adad I attempted to legitimize his position on the Assyrian throne by claiming descent from Ushpia (an early native Assyrian king who fl. c. 2050 BC – c. 2030 BC). Although regarded as an Amorite by later Assyrian tradition, earlier archaeologists assumed that Shamshi-Adad I had indeed been a native Assyrian. Ushpia was the second last in the section "kings who lived in tents" of the AKL, however; Ushpia has not been confirmed by contemporary artifacts. Ushpia is succeeded on the AKL by his son Apiashal (fl. c. 2030 BC – c. 2027 BC). Apiashal was a monarch of the Early Period of Assyria, according to the AKL. Apiashal is listed within the section of the AKL as the last of whom "altogether seventeen kings, tent dwellers." This section shows marked similarities to the ancestors of the First Babylonian dynasty. Apiashal is also listed within a section of the AKL as the first of the ten "kings whose fathers are known". This section (which in contrast to the rest of the list) had been written in reverse order—beginning with Aminu (fl. c. 2003 BC – c. 2000 BC) and ending with Apiashal "altogether ten kings who are ancestors"—has often been interpreted as the list of ancestors of Shamshi-Adad I. In keeping with this assumption, scholars have inferred that the original form of the AKL had been written (among other things) as an "attempt to justify that Shamshi-Adad I was a legitimate ruler of the city-state Assur and to obscure his non-Assyrian antecedents by incorporating his ancestors into a native Assyrian genealogy." However, this interpretation has not been accepted universally; the "Cambridge Ancient History" rejected this interpretation and instead interpreted the section as being that of the ancestors of Sulili[6] (fl. c. 2000 BC). In the city-state Assur, Shamshi-Adad I held the title "Governor of Assur." Stone tablets with Akkadian inscriptions (formatted in three columns and a one hundred and thirty-five lines, from Shamshi-Adad I) have been found near the temple of the god Assur. Archaeology supports this claim because excavations of the temple of Assur show that many bricks and objects inside have the inscription "Shamshi-Adad I, Builder of the Temple of Assur" carved into them. In this inscription he claimed to have been "King of the Universe" and "Unifier of the Land Between Tigris and Euphrates." He asserted that the king of the Upper Land had paid tribute to him and that he had built the temple of Enlil. He outlined the market prices of that time as being one shekel of silver being worth two kor of barley, fifteen minas of wool, or two seahs of oil. Conquests Shamshi-Adad I took over the long-abandoned town of Shekhna (today known as Tell Leilan), converted it into the capital city of the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia, and then renamed it Šubat-Enlil (meaning "the residence of the god Enlil" in the Akkadian language) c. 1808 BC. During his reign, the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia competed for power in Lower Mesopotamia against: King Naram-Sin of Eshnunna (who died c. 1816 BC), Naram-Sin's successors, and Yahdun-Lim of Mari. A main target for expansion was the city of Mari, which controlled the caravan route between Anatolia and Mesopotamia. King Yahdun-Lim of Mari (fl. c. 1800 BC – c. 1700 BC) was assassinated by his own servants (possibly on Shamshi-Adad I's orders.) The heir to the throne of Mari, Zimri-Lim, was forced to flee to Yamhad. Shamshi-Adad I seized the opportunity and occupied Mari c. 1795 BC. He placed his sons (Ishme-Dagan I and Yasmah-Adad) in key geographical locations and gave them responsibility to look over those areas. Shamshi-Adad I put his eldest son (Ishme-Dagan I) on the throne of Ekallatum, while Shamshi-Adad I remained in Šubat-Enlil. Shamshi-Adad I put his second son, Yasmah-Adad, on the throne in Mari. With the annexation of Mari, Shamshi-Adad I had carved out a large empire encompassing much of Syria, Anatolia, and the whole of Upper Mesopotamia (this empire often referred to as either the "Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia" or the "Upper Mesopotamian Empire".) Shamshi-Adad I proclaimed himself as "King of All" (the title had been used by Sargon of the Akkadian Empire c. 2334 BC – c. 2279 BC). King Dadusha of Eshnunna (fl. c. 1800 BC – c. 1779 BC), made an alliance with Shamshi-Adad I to conquer the area between the two Zab rivers c. 1781 BC. This military campaign of joint forces was commemorated on a victory stele which states that Dadusha gave the lands to Shamshi-Adad I. Shamshi-Adad I later turned against Dadusha by attacking cities including Shaduppum and Nerebtum. On inscriptions Shamshi-Adad I boasts of erecting triumphal stelae on the coast of the Mediterranean, but these probably represent short expeditions rather than any attempts at conquest. His campaigns were meticulously planned, and his army knew all the classic methods of siegecraft, such as encircling ramparts and battering rams. Family See also: Ishme-Dagan I and Yasmah-Adad While Ishme-Dagan I was probably a competent ruler, his brother Yasmah-Adad appears to have been a man of weak character; something the disappointed father (Shamshi-Adad I) was not above mentioning: "Are you a child, not a man, have you no beard on your chin?" Shamshi-Adad I wrote in another letter: "While here your brother is victorious, down there you lie about among the women." Shamshi-Adad I clearly kept a firm control on the actions of his sons, as shown in his many letters to them. At one point he arranged a political marriage between Yasmah-Adad to Beltum, the princess of his ally in Qatna. Yasmah-Adad already had a leading wife and had put Beltum in a secondary position of power. Shamshi-Adad I did not approve and forced his son to keep Beltum in the palace in a leading position. Shamshi-Adad I sent a letter on a tablet to Ishi-Addu (Beltum's father, the King of Qatna) in which he discussed their alliance, the attacks of their enemies, and the successful marriage between their children. In it Shamshi-Adad I wrote: "I heard that you gladly dispatched my daughter-in-law on a safe way back to me, that you treated my servants when they stayed with you well, and that they were not hindered at all. My heart is very happy." Reign Shamshi-Adad I was a great organizer and he kept firm controls on all matters of state, from high policy down to the appointing of officials and the dispatching of provisions. Spies and propaganda were often used to win over rival cities. He allowed conquered territories to maintain some of their earlier practices. In Nineveh he used state resources to rebuild the Ishtar temple. The local rulers of the city Qattara maintained authority (but became vassals) when they were incorporated into the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia. User of these Assyrian Eponym dating system was enforced throughout the Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia in cities such as: Mari, Tuttul, Terqa, and the capital city Šubat-Enlil. Fall Shamshi-Adad I continued to strengthen his kingdom throughout his life, but as he got older, the state became more vulnerable and the neighboring great powers Yamkhad and Eshnunna began attacking. The empire lacked cohesion and was in a vulnerable geographical position. Naturally, Shamshi-Adad I's rise to glory earned him the envy of neighboring kings and tribes, and throughout his reign, he and his sons faced several threats to their control. After the death of Shamshi-Adad I, Eshnunna captured cities around Assur. When the news of Shamshi-Adad I's death spread, his old rivals set out to topple his sons from the throne. Yasmah-Adad was soon expelled from Mari] by Zimri-Lim (fl. c. 1775 BC – c. 1761 BC), and the rest of the empire was eventually lost during the reigns of Išme-Dagān I and Mut-Ashkur (fl. c. 1730 BC – c. 1720 BC) to another Amorite ruler, Hammurabi of Babylon (fl. c. 1810 BC – c. 1750 BC)
   
10. Title: Wikiwand: Yakmesi
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Yakmesi;
    Note: Yakmesi (Akkadian: "𒅀𒀝𒈨𒋛," romanized: "Ia-ak-me-si") was the twenty-second Assyrian monarch of the Early Period of "Aššūrāyu" ("Assyria") according to the "Assyrian King List" (AKL). Yakmesi is listed within a section of the AKL as the sixth out of the ten, "kings whose fathers are known." This section (which in contrast to the rest of the list) had been written in reverse order—beginning with Aminu and ending with Apiashal "altogether ten kings who are ancestors"—and has often been interpreted as the list of ancestors of the Amorite Šamši-Adad I (fl. c. 1809 BCE) who conquered the city-state of Aššur. The AKL also states that Yakmesi was the son and successor of Ilu-Mer. Additionally, the AKL states that Yakmesi had been was the predecessor and father of Yakmeni.
    
11. Title: "The Untold Story of Native Iraqis: Chaldean Mesopotamians 5300 BC - Present," by Amer Hanna-Fatuhi
    Author: Xlibris Corporation, Apr 16, 2012
    Publication: Name: https://books.google.com/books?id=sQtOAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT160&dq=Tudiya&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj_nPeQyennAhUMh-AKHYyxCoYQ6AEwBHoECAUQAg#v=snippet&q=Yakmesi&f=false;
    Note: "The Untold Story of Native Iraqis Chaldean Mesopotamians 5300 BC – Present" by: Amer Hanna-Fatuhi A groundbreaking work that further explores the true identity of the indigenous people of Iraq, Chaldean-Mesopotamians is presented in the compelling book titled The Untold Story of Native Iraqis written by author Amer Hanna-Fatuhi. Hanna-Fatuhi worked for two years and spent over a quarter of a century researching the history of the region. This book perfectly illuminates the antiquity of Babylon and the indigenous people of the region next to other well known and obscure ethnic groups. It allows for a more profound awareness of the Iraqi people’s individuality as well as the country’s social and political dynamics.
    
12. Title: Wikiwand: Assur
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Assur;
    Note: Aššur (/ˈæsʊər/; Akkadian; Syriac: "ܐܫܘܪ,"‎ "Āšūr"; Old Persian "𐎠𐎰𐎢𐎼," "Aθur," Persian: "آشور‎": Āšūr; Hebrew: "אַשּׁוּר": "Aššûr," Arabic: "اشور"‎), also known as Ashur and Qal'at Sherqat, was the capital of the Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1750 BC), the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC), and for a time, of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–608 BC). The remains of the city lie on the western bank of the Tigris River, north of the confluence with its tributary, the Little Zab, in what is now Iraq, more precisely in the al-Shirqat District of the Saladin Governorate. Occupation of the city itself continued for approximately 4,000 years, from c. 2600 BC to the mid-14th century AD, when the forces of Timur massacred its population. The site is a World Heritage Site, having been added to that organization's list of sites in danger in 2003 following the conflict that erupted following the 2003 invasion of Iraq and as a result of a proposed dam which would flood some of the site. Assur lies 65 kilometers (40 mi) south of the site of Nimrud and 100 km (60 mi) south of Nineveh. History of research Exploration of the site of Assur began in 1898 by German archaeologists. Excavations began in 1900 by Friedrich Delitzsch, and were continued in 1903–1913 by a team from the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft led initially by Robert Koldewey and later by Walter Andrae. More than 16,000 clay tablets with cuneiform texts were discovered. Many of the objects found made their way to the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. More recently, Ashur was excavated by B. Hrouda for the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich and the Bavarian Ministry of Culture in 1990. During the same period, in 1988 and 1989, the site was being worked by R. Dittmann on behalf of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Name Main article: Name of Syria Aššur is the name of the city, of the land ruled by the city, and of its tutelary deity from which the natives took their name, as did the entire nation of Assyria which encompassed what is today northern Iraq, north east Syria and south east Turkey. Today the Assyrians are still found throughout the Middle East, particularly in Iraq, Iran, Syria, Turkey, and the Diaspora in the western world. Assur is also the origin of the names Syria and terms for Syriac Christians, these being originally Indo-European derivations of Assyria, and for many centuries applying only to Assyria and the Assyrians (see Etymology of Syria) before also being applied to the Levant and its inhabitants by the Seleucid Empire in the 3rd century BC. Early Bronze Age Archaeology reveals the site of the city was occupied by the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. This was still the Sumerian period, before Assyria emerged in the 25th to 21st century BC. The oldest remains of the city were discovered in the foundations of the Ishtar temple, as well as at the Old Palace. In the subsequent period, the city was ruled by kings from the Akkadian Empire. During the Third Dynasty of Ur, the city was ruled by Assyrian governors subject to the Sumerians. Old and Middle Assyrian Empire By the time the Neo-Sumerian Ur-III dynasty collapsed at the hands of the Elamites around the end of the 21st century BC according to the Middle Chronology and mid-20th century according to the Short Chronology following increasing raids by Gutians and Amorites. The native Akkadian-speaking Assyrian kings were now free while Sumer fell under the yoke of the Amorites. The Assyrian king Ushpia who reigned around the 21st century BC is credited with dedicating the first temple of the god Ashur in his home city, although this comes from a later inscription from Shalmaneser I in the 13th century. The temple likely dates to the original settlement of the site when the people of Ashur established their nation under the patronage of the city's god. Soon after in around 2000 BC, Puzur-Ashur I founded a new dynasty, with his successors such as Ilushuma, Erishum I and Sargon I leaving inscriptions regarding the building of temples to Ashur, Adad and Ishtar in the city. Prosperity and independence produced the first significant fortifications in this period. As the region enjoyed relative peace and stability, trade between Mesopotamia and Anatolia increased, and the city of Ashur greatly benefited from its strategic location. Merchants would dispatch their merchandise via caravan into Anatolia and trade primarily at Assyrian colonies in Anatolia, the primary one being at Karum Kanesh (Kültepe). With Shamshi-Adad I's (1813–1781 BC) capital at Assur, he magnified the city's power and influence beyond the Tigris river valley, establishing what some regard as the first Assyrian Empire. In this era, the Great Royal Palace was built, and the temple of Assur was expanded and enlarged with a ziggurat. However, this empire met its end when Hammurabi, the Amorite king of Babylon conquered and incorporated the city into his short lived empire following the death of Ishme-Dagan I around 1756 BC, while the next three Assyrian kings were viewed as vassals. Not long after, the native king Adasi expelled the Babylonians and Amorites from Assur and Assyria as a whole around 1720 BC, although little is known of his successors. Evidence of further building activity is known from a few centuries later, during the reign of a native king Puzur-Ashur III, when the city was refortified and the southern districts incorporated into the main city defenses. Temples to the moon god Sin (Nanna) and the sun god Shamash were built and dedicated through the 15th century BC. The city was subsequently subjugated by the king of Mitanni, Shaushtatar in the late 15th century, taking the gold and silver doors of the temple to his capital, Washukanni, as spoils. Ashur-uballit I emulated his ancestor Adasi and overthrew the Mitanni empire in 1365 BC. The Assyrians reaped the benefits of this triumph by taking control of the eastern portion of the Mitanni Empire, and later also annexing Hittite, Babylonian, Amorite and Hurrian territory. The following centuries witnessed the restoration of the old temples and palaces of Assur, and the city once more became the throne of a magnanimous empire from 1365 BC to 1076 BC. Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244–1208 BC) also constructed a new temple to the goddess Ishtar. The Anu-Adad temple was established later during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I (1115–1075 BC). The walled area of the city in the Middle Assyrian period made up some 1.2 square kilometers (300 acres). Neo-Assyrian Empire In the Neo-Assyrian Empire (912–605 BC), the royal residence was transferred to other Assyrian cities. Ashur-nasir-pal II (884–859 BC) moved the capital from Assur to Kalhu (Calah/Nimrud) following a series of successful campaigns and produced some of the greatest artworks in the form of colossal lamassu statues and low-relief depictions of the royal court as well as battles. With the reign of Sargon II (722–705 BC), a new capital began to rise. Dur-Sharrukin (Fortress of Sargon) on a scale set to surpass that of Ashurnasirpal's. However, he died in battle and his son and successor Sennacherib (705–682 BC) abandoned the city, choosing to magnify Niniveh as his royal capital. However, the city of Ashur remained the religious center of the empire and continued to be revered as the holy crown of the empire, due to its temple of the national god Ashur. In the reign of Sennacherib (705–682 BC), the House of the New Year, Akitu, was built, and the festivities celebrated in the city. Many of the kings were also buried beneath the Old Palace while some queens were buried in the other capitals such as the wife of Sargon, Ataliya. The city was sacked and largely destroyed during the decisive battle of Assur, a major confrontation between the Assyrian and Median armies. Achaemenid Empire After the Medes were overthrown by the Persians as the dominant force in ancient Iran, Assyria was ruled by the Persian Achaemenid Empire (as Athura) from 549 BC to 330 BC (see Achaemenid Assyria). The Assyrians of Mada (Media) and Athura (Assyria) had been responsible for gold and glazing works of the palace and for providing Lebanese cedar timber, respectively. The city and region of Ashur had once more gained a degree of militaristic and economic strength. Along with the Assyrians in Mada, a revolt took place in 520 BC but ultimately failed. Assyria seems to have recovered dramatically, and flourished during this period. It became a major agricultural and administrative center of the Achaemenid Empire, and its soldiers were a mainstay of the Persian Army. Parthian Empire The city revived during the Parthian Empire period, particularly between 150 BC and 270 AD, being resettled and becoming an administrative centre of Parthian-ruled Assuristan. Assyriologists Simo Parpola and Patricia Crone suggest Assur may have had outright independence in this period. Other polities such as Beth Garmai, Beth Nuhadra and Adiabene also flourished due to the fact that the Parthians exercised only loose or intermittent control of Assyria. New administrative buildings were erected to the north of the old city, and a palace to the south. The old temple dedicated to the national god of the Assyrians Assur (Ashur) was rebuilt, as were temples to other Assyrian gods. Assyrian Eastern Aramaic inscriptions from the remains of Ashur have yielded insight into the Parthian-era city with Assyria having its own Aramaic Syriac script, which was the same in terms of grammar and syntax as that found at Edessa and elsewhere in the state of Osroene. German archaeologist Klaus Beyer published over 600 inscriptions from Mesopotamian towns and cities including Ashur, Dura-Europos, Hatra, Gaddala, Tikrit and Tur Abdin. Given that Christianity had begun to spread amongst the Assyrians throughout the Parthian era, the original Assyrian culture and religion persisted for some time, as proven by the inscriptions that include invocations to the gods Ashur, Nergal, Sin, Ishtar an..
    
13. Title: "Mesopotamian Chronicles," by Jean-Jacques Glassner, Benjamin Benjamin Read Foster
    Author: BRILL, 2005
    Publication: Name: https://books.google.com/books?id=5gUNVtrlr28C&q=Yakmeni#v=snippet&q=Yakmesi&f=false;
    Note: This English translation of Glassner s Chroniques Mésopotamiennes (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1993) collects all chronicle literature of ancient Mesopotamia from the early second millenium to Seleucid times. The volume, which incorporates revisions and additions by the author and a transcription of the cuneiform, includes every example of Sumerian, Assyrian, and Babylonian historiographic literature, and magisterial essays on the genre and on Mesopotamian historiography in general.Paperback edition is available from the Society of Biblical Literature (www.sbl-site.org).
    
14. Title: Wikiwand: List of Assyrian kings
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/List_of_Assyrian_kings;
    Note: The King of Assyria (Akkadian: "šar māt Aššur"), called the Governor or Viceroy of Assyria (Akkadian: "Išši’ak Aššur") in the Early and Old periods, was the ruler of the ancient Mesopotamian kingdom of Assyria, which existed from approximately the 26th century BC to the 7th century BC. All modern lists of Assyrian kings generally follow the Assyrian King List, a list kept and developed by the ancient Assyrians themselves over the course of several centuries. Though some parts of the list are probably fictional, the list accords well with Hittite, Babylonian and ancient Egyptian king lists and with the archaeological record, and is generally considered reliable for the age. The ancient Assyrians did not believe that their king was divine himself, but saw their ruler as the vicar of their principal deity, Ashur, and as his chief representative on Earth. In their worldview, Assyria represented a place of order while lands not governed by the Assyrian king (and by extension, the god Ashur) were seen as places of chaos and disorder. As such it was seen as the king's duty to expand the borders of Assyria and bring order and civilization to lands perceived as uncivilized. Originally vassals of more powerful empires, the early Assyrian kings used the title governor or viceroy ("Išši’ak"), which was retained as the ruling title after Assyria gained independence due to the title of king ("šar") being applied to the god Ashur. Later Assyrian kings, beginning with Ashur-uballit I (14th century BC) adopted the title "šar māt Aššur" as their empire expanded and later also adopted more boastful titles such as "king of Sumer and Akkad," "king of the Universe" and "king of the Four Corners of the World," often to assert their control over all of Mesopotamia. The line of Assyrian kings ended with the defeat of Assyria's final king Ashur-uballit II by the Neo-Babylonian Empire and the Median Empire in 609 BC, after which Assyria disappeared as an independent political unit, never to rise again. The Assyrian people survived and remain as an ethnic, linguistic, religious (Christians since the 1st–3rd centuries AD) and cultural minority in the Assyrian homeland and elsewhere to this day. Sources Incomplete king lists have been recovered from all three of the major ancient Assyrian capitals (Aššur, Dur-Šarukkin and Nineveh). The three lists are largely consistent with each other, all originally copies of a single original list, and are based on the yearly appointments of "limmu"-officials (the eponymous officials for each year, appointed by the king to preside over the celebration of the New Year festival). Because of the consistency between the list and the method through which it was created, modern scholars usually accept the regnal years mentioned as more or less correct. There are some differences between the copies of the list, notably in that they offer somewhat diverging regnal years before the reign of king Ashur-dan I of the Middle Assyrian Empire (reign beginning in 1178 BC). After 1178 BC, the lists are identical in their contents. The king lists mostly accord well with Hittite, Babylonian and ancient Egyptian king lists and with the archaeological record, and are generally considered reliable for the age. It is however clear that parts of the list are fictional, as some known kings are not found on the list and other listed kings are not independently verified. Originally it was assumed that the list was first written in the time of Shamshi-Adad I circa 1800 BC but it now is considered to date from much later, probably from the time of Ashurnasirpal I (1050–1031 BC). The oldest of the surviving king-lists, List A (8th century BC) stops at Tiglath-Pileser II (c. 967–935 BC) and the youngest, List C, stops at Shalmaneser V (727–722 BC). One problem that arises with the Assyrian King List is that the creation of the list may have been more motivated by political interest than actual chronological and historical accuracy. In times of civil strife and confusion, the list still adheres to a single royal line of descent, probably ignoring rival claimants to the throne. Additionally, there are some known inconsistencies between the list and actual inscriptions by Assyrian kings, often regarding dynastic relationships. For instance, Ashur-nirari II is stated by the list to be the son of his predecessor Enlil-Nasir II, but from inscriptions it is known that he was actually the son of Ashur-rabi I and brother of Enlil-Nasir. Titles See also: Akkadian royal titulary Assyrian royal titles typically followed trends that began under the Akkadian Empire (c. 2334–2154 BC), the Mesopotamian civilization that preceded the later kingdoms of Assyria and Babylon. When the Mesopotamian central government under the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112–2004 BC) collapsed and polities that had once been vassals to Ur became independent, many of the new sovereign rulers refrained from taking the title of king ("šar"), instead applying that title to their principal deities (in the case of Assyria, Ashur). For this reason, most of the Assyrian kings of the Old (c. 2025–1378 BC) and Middle Assyrian period (c. 1392–934 BC) used the title "Išši’ak Aššur," translating to "governor of Assyria." In contrast to the titles employed by the Babylonian kings in the south, which typically focused on the protective role and the piety of the king, Assyrian royal inscriptions tend to glorify the strength and power of the king. Assyrian titularies usually also often emphasize the royal genealogy of the king, something Babylonian titularies do not, and also drive home the king's moral and physical qualities while downplaying his role in the judicial system. Assyrian epithets about royal lineage vary in how far they stretch back, most often simply discussing lineage in terms of "son of ..." or "brother of ...". Some cases display lineage stretching back much further, Shamash-shuma-ukin (r. 667–648 BC) describes himself as a "descendant of Sargon II", his great-grandfather. More extremely, Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) calls himself a "descendant of the eternal seed of Bel-bani," a king who would have lived more than a thousand years before him. Assyrian royal titularies were changed often, depending on where the titles were to be displayed, the titles of the same Assyrian king would have been different in their home country of Assyria and in conquered regions. Those Neo-Assyrian kings who controlled the city of Babylon used a "hybrid" titulary of sorts in the south, combining aspects of the Assyrian and Babylonian tradition, similar to how the traditional Babylonian deities were promoted in the south alongside the Assyrian main deity of Ashur. The assumption of many traditional southern titles, including the ancient "king of Sumer and Akkad" and the boastful "king of the Universe" and "king of the Four Corners of the World," by the Assyrian kings served to legitimize their rule and assert their control over Babylon and lower Mesopotamia. Epithets like "chosen by the god Marduk and the goddess Sarpanit" and "favorite of the god Ashur and the goddess Mullissu," both assumed by Esarhaddon, illustrate that he was both Assyrian (Ashur and Mullissu, the main pair of Assyrian deities) and a legitimate ruler over Babylon (Marduk and Sarpanit, the main pair of Babylonian deities).
    
15. Title: Wikiwand: Akkadian language
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Akkadian_language;
    Note: Akkadian (/əˈkeɪdiən/ "akkadû," "𒀝𒅗𒁺𒌑," "ak-ka-du-u2"; logogram: "𒌵𒆠," "URIKI") is an extinct East Semitic language that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia (Akkad, Assyria, Isin, Larsa and Babylonia) from the third millennium BC until its gradual replacement by Akkadian-influenced Old Aramaic among Mesopotamians by the 8th century BC. It is the earliest attested Semitic language. It used the cuneiform script, which originally was used to write the unrelated, and also extinct, Sumerian (which is a language isolate). Akkadian is named after the city of Akkad, a major center of Mesopotamian civilization during the Akkadian Empire (c. 2334–2154 BC). The mutual influence between Sumerian and Akkadian had led scholars to describe the languages as a "Sprachbund." Akkadian proper names were first attested in Sumerian texts from around the mid 3rd-millennium BC. From about the 25th or 24th century BC, texts fully written in Akkadian begin to appear. By the 10th century BC, two variant forms of the language were in use in Assyria and Babylonia, known as Assyrian and Babylonian respectively. The bulk of preserved material is from this later period, corresponding to the Near Eastern Iron Age. In total, hundreds of thousands of texts and text fragments have been excavated, covering a vast textual tradition of mythological narrative, legal texts, scientific works, correspondence, political and military events, and many other examples. Akkadian (in its Assyrian and Babylonian varieties) was the native language of the Mesopotamian empires (Akkadian Empire, Old Assyrian Empire, Babylonia, Middle Assyrian Empire) throughout the later Bronze Age, and Akkadian became the lingua franca of much of the Ancient Near East by the time of the Bronze Age collapse. Its decline began duing the Iron Age, during the Neo-Assyrian Empire, by about the 8th century BC (Tiglath-Pileser III), in favor of Old Aramaic. By the Hellenistic period, the language was largely confined to scholars and priests working in temples in Assyria and Babylonia. The last known Akkadian cuneiform document dates from the 1st century AD. Mandaic and Assyrian are two (Northwest Semitic) Neo-Aramaic languages that retain some Akkadian vocabulary and grammatical features. Akkadian is a fusional language with grammatical case; and like all Semitic languages, Akkadian uses the system of consonantal roots. The Kültepe texts, which were written in Old Assyrian, include Hittite loanwords and names that constitute the oldest record of any Indo-European language.
    
16. Title: Wikiwand: Short chronology
    Author: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
    Publication: Name: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Short_chronology;
    Note: The short chronology is one of the chronologies of the Near Eastern Bronze and Early Iron Age, which fixes the reign of Hammurabi to 1728–1686 BC and the sack of Babylon to 1531 BC. The absolute 2nd millennium BC dates resulting from these reference points have very little academic support, and have essentially been disproved by recent dendrochronology research. The "middle chronology" (reign of Hammurabi 1792–1750 BC) is more commonly accepted in academic literature. For much of the period in question, middle chronology dates can be calculated by adding 64 years to the corresponding short chronology date (e.g. 1728 BC in short chronology corresponds to 1792 in middle chronology). After the so-called "dark age" between the fall of Babylon and the rise of the Kassite dynasty in Babylonia, absolute dating becomes less uncertain. While exact dates are still not agreed upon, the 64-year middle/short chronology gap ceases from the beginning of the Third Babylon Dynasty onward. Early Bronze Age Estimation of absolute dates becomes possible for the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. For the first half of the 3rd millennium, only very rough chronological matching of archaeological dates with written records is possible. Kings of Ebla Main article: Ebla The city-states of Ebla and Mari (in modern Syria) competed for power at this time. Eventually, under Irkab-Damu, Ebla defeated Mari for control of the region just in time to face the rise of Uruk and Akkad. After years of back and forth, Ebla was destroyed by the Akkadian Empire. Pottery seals of the Egyptian pharaoh Pepi I have been found in the wreckage of the city. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Igrish-Halam c. 2300 BC Irkab-Damu Contemporary of Iblul-Il of Mari Ar-Ennum or Reshi-Ennum Ibrium or Ebrium Contemporary of Tudiya of Assyria (treaty) Ibbi-Sipish or Ibbi-Zikir Son of Ibrium Dubuhu-Ada Ebla destroyed by Naram-Sin of Akkad or Sargon of Akkad Sumer Further information: Sumerian king list Third Dynasty of Uruk Further information: Uruk Lugal-zage-si of Umma rules from Uruk after defeating Lagash, eventually falling to the emerging Akkadian Empire. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Lugal-zage-si 2295–2271 BC Defeats Urukagina of Lagash and is in turn defeated by Sargon of Akkad Dynasty of Akkad Further information: Akkad Since Akkad (or Agade), the capital of the Akkadian Empire, has not yet been found, available chronological data comes from outlying locations like Ebla, Tell Brak, Nippur, Susa and Tell Leilan. Clearly, the expansion of Akkad came under the rules of Sargon and Naram-sin. Its last king, Shar-kali-sharri barely held the empire together, but upon his death, it fragmented. Finally, the city of Akkad itself was destroyed by the Guti. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Sargon 2270–2215 BC Rimush 2214–2206 BC Son of Sargon Man-ishtishu 2205–2191 BC Son of Sargon Naram-sin 2190–2154 BC Grandson of Sargon Shar-kali-sharri 2153–2129 BC Son of Naram-sin Irgigi Nanum Imi Ilulu Dudu 2125–2104 BC Shu-Durul 2104–2083 BC City of Akkad falls to the Guti Gutian Kings Further information: Gutian dynasty of Sumer First appearing in the area during the reign of Sargon of Akkad, the Guti became a regional power after the decline of the Akkadian Empire following Shar-kali-sharri. The dynasty ends with the defeat of the last king, Tirigan, by Uruk. Only a handful of the Guti kings are attested to by inscriptions, aside from the Sumerian king list. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Erridupizir 2141–2138 BC Royal inscription at Nippur Imta or Nibia (There is no king for 3 or 5 years) 2138–2135 BC Inkishush 2135–2129 BC First Gutian ruler on the Sumerian king list Sarlagab 2129–2126 BC Shulme 2126–2120 BC Elulmesh or Silulumesh 2120–2114 BC Inimabakesh 2114–2109 BC Igeshaush or Igeaus 2109–2103 BC Yarlagab or Yarlaqaba 2103–2088 BC Ibate 2088–2085 BC Yarlangab or Yarla 2085–2082 BC Kurum 2082–2081 BC Apilkin or Habil-kin or Apil-kin 2081–2078 BC La-erabum 2078–2076 BC Mace head inscription Irarum 2076–2074 BC Ibranum 2074–2073 BC Hablum 2073–2071 BC Puzur-Suen 2071–2064 BC Son of Hablum Yarlaganda 2064–2057 BC Foundation inscription at Umma Si-um or Si-u 2057–2050 BC Foundation inscription at Umma Tirigan 2050–2050 BC Contemporary of Utu-hengal of Uruk Second Dynasty of Lagash Further information: Lagash Following the collapse of the Akkadian Empire after Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad under pressure from the invading Gutians, Lagash gradually regained prominence. As a client state to the Gutian Kings, Lagash was extremely successful, peaking under the rule of Gudea. After the last Gutian king, Tirigan, was defeated, by Utu-hengal, Lagash came under the control of Ur under Ur-Namma. Note that there is some indication that the order of the last two rulers of Lagash should be reversed. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Lugalushumgal ca. 2140 ruled under Gutian kings Puzer-Mama Ur-Utu Ur-Mama Lu-Baba Lugula Kaku or Kakug ended 2093 Ur-Bau or Ur-baba 2093–2080 BC Gudea 2080–2060 BC Son-in-law of Ur-baba Ur-Ningirsu 2060–2055 BC Son of Gudea Pirigme or Ugme 2055–2053 BC Grandson of Gudea Ur-gar 2053–2049 BC Nammahani 2049–2046 BC Grandson of Kaku, defeated by Ur-Namma Fifth Dynasty of Uruk Further information: Uruk Uniting various Sumerian city-states, Utu-hengal frees the region from the Gutians. Note that the Sumerian king list records a preceding 4th Dynasty of Uruk which is as yet unattested. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Utu-hengal 2055–2048 BC Appoints Ur-Namma as governor of Ur Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance) Main article: Third Dynasty of Ur In an apparently peaceful transition, Ur came to power after the end of the reign of Utu-hengal of Uruk, with the first king, Ur-Namma, solidifying his power with the defeat of Lagash. By the dynasty's end with the destruction of Ur by Elamites and Shimashki, the dynasty included little more than the area around Ur. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Ur-Namma or Ur-Engur 2047–2030 BC Defeated Nammahani of Lagash; Contemporary of Utu-hengal of Uruk Shulgi 2029–1982 BC Possible lunar/solar eclipse 2005 BC Amar-Suena 1981–1973 BC Son of Shulgi Shu-Suen 1972–1964 BC Ibbi-Suen 1963–1940 BC Son of Shu-Suen Middle Bronze Age The Old Assyrian / Old Babylonian period (20th to 15th centuries) First Dynasty of Isin Further information: Isin After Ishbi-Erra of Isin breaks away from the declining Third Dynasty of Ur under Ibbi-Suen, Isin reaches its peak under Ishme-Dagan. Weakened by attacks from the upstart Babylonians, Isin eventually falls to its rival Larsa under Rim-Sin I. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Ishbi-Erra 1953–1921 BC Contemporary of Ibbi-Suen of Ur III Šu-ilišu 1920–1911 BC Son of Ishbi-Erra Iddin-Dagan 1910–1890 BC Son of Shu-ilishu Ishme-Dagan 1889–1871 BC Son of Iddin-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar 1870–1860 BC Contemporary of Gungunum of Larsa Ur-Ninurta 1859–1832 BC Contemporary of Abisare of Larsa Bur-Suen 1831–1811 BC Son of Ur-Ninurta Lipit-Enlil 1810–1806 BC Son of Bur-Suen Erra-Imittī or Ura-imitti 1805–1799 BC Enlil-bāni 1798–1775 BC Contemporary of Sumu-la-El of Babylon Zambīia 1774–1772 BC Contemporary of Sin-Iqisham of Larsa Iter-piša 1771–1768 BC Ur-du-kuga 1767–1764 BC Suen-magir 1763–1753 BC Damiq-ilishu 1752–1730 BC Son of Suen-magir Kings of Larsa Further information: Larsa The chronology of the Kingdom of Larsa is based mainly on the Larsa King List (Larsa Dynastic List), the Larsa Date Lists, and a number of royal inscriptions and commercial records. The Larsa King List was compiled in Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi, conqueror of Larsa. It is suspected that the list elevated the first several Amorite Isinite governors of Larsa to kingship so as to legitimize the rule of the Amorite Babylonians over Larsa. After a period of Babylonian occupation, Larsa briefly breaks free in a revolt ended by the death of the last king, Rim-Sin II. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Naplanum 1961–1940 BC Contemporary of Ibbi-Suen of Ur III Emisum 1940–1912 BC Samium 1912–1877 BC Zabaia 1877–1868 BC Son of Samium, First royal inscription Gungunum 1868–1841 BC Gained independence from Lipit-Eshtar of Isin Abisare 1841–1830 BC Sumuel 1830–1801 BC Nur-Adad 1801–1785 BC Contemporary of Sumu-la-El of Babylon Sin-Iddinam 1785–1778 BC Son of Nur-Adad Sin-Eribam 1778–1776 BC Sin-Iqisham 1776–1771 BC Contemporary of Zambiya of Isin, Son of Sin-Eribam Silli-Adad 1771–1770 BC Warad-Sin 1770–1758 BC Possible co-regency with Kudur-Mabuk his father Rim-Sin I 1758–1699 BC Contemporary of Irdanene of Uruk, Defeated by Hammurabi of Babylon, Brother of Warad-Sin Hammurabi of Babylon 1699–1686 BC Official Babylonian rule Samsu-iluna of Babylon 1686–1678 BC Official Babylonian rule Rim-Sin II 1678–1674 BC Killed in revolt against Babylon First Babylonian dynasty (Dynasty I) Main article: First Babylonian dynasty Following the fall of the Ur III Dynasty, the resultant power vacuum was contested by Isin and Larsa, with Babylon and Assyria later joining the fray. In the second half of the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon became the preeminent power, a position it largely maintained until the sack by Mursili I in 1531 BC. Note that there are no contemporary accounts of the sack of Babylon. It is inferred from much later documents. Ruler Proposed reign Notes Sumu-abum or Su-abu 1830–1817 BC Contemporary of Ilushuma of Assyria Sumu-la-El 1817–1781 BC Contemporary of Erishum I of Assyria Sabium or Sabum 1781–1767 BC Son of Sumu-la-El Apil-Sin 1767–1749 BC Son of Sabium Sin-muballit 1748–1729 BC Son of Apil-Sin Hammurabi 1728–1686 BC Contemporary of Zimri-Lim of Mari, Siwe-palar-huppak of Elam and Shamshi-Adad I Samsu-iluna 1686–1648 BC Son of Hammurabi Abi-eshuh or Abieshu 1648–1620 BC Son of Samsu-iluna Ammi-ditana 1620–1583 BC Son of Abi-eshuh Ammi-saduqa or Ammisaduqa 1582–1562 BC Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa Samsu-Ditana 1562–1531 BC Sack of Babylon 1st Sealand Dynasty (2nd Dynasty of Babylon) Main article: Sea..